ilMl^.^ 


UtsT/ERaTY  Of 
CALIFORNIA 


/.r,'\^, 


GRAMMAR 


OF    THE 


German  Language 


HIGH    SCHOOLS    AND    COLLEGES 


DESIGNED  FOR  BEGINNERS  AND  ADVANCED  STUDENTS 


BY 

H.  C.  G.  BRANDT 

HAMILTON     COLLEGE,    CLINTON,     N.    Y. 


SEVENTH   EDITION 

WITH   AN   APPENDIX   CONTAINING    FULL   INFLECTIONS,  AND   A    LIST   OF   STRONG 
"and    IRREGULAR    VERBS 


1300t0n  anti  Cfjicago 
ALLYN     AND     BACON 


Copyright^  1884,  by  G.  P.  Putnam  5  Sons, 


Copyright,  1888,  by  Allyn  &'  Bacon. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FOURTH   EDITION. 


^HIS  is  the  first  thoroughly  revised  edition.  Of  the  criti- 
■^  cisms  of  this  work,  I  have  been  able  to  accept  and 
embody  especially  those  of  Professor  A.  L.  Eipley,  of  Yale 
College,  and  of  Professor  Geo.  O.  Curme,  of  Cornell  College 
(Iowa),  to  both  of  whom  I  express  my  sincere  thanks.  The 
strictures  made  upon  my  classification  of  nouns  and  upon  the 
standard  of  pronunciation  I  do  not  think  well  f(3unded.  The 
classification  of  nouns  is  historical  and  scientific.  If  the 
best  standard  should  finally  settle  upon  M,  jh  (§  375) 
for  g  and  not  upon  k  (surd  stop),  nothing  would  please  me 
better.  "  Hard "  g  except  after  n  is  a  biiter  pill  for  a 
North  German.  To  the  objection  that  the  work  is  too  con- 
cise, let  me  say  that  I  have  tried  to  make  it  concise.  The 
Accidence  and  Part  II.  were  once  as  large  again  as  they 
are  now.  The  first  contained  too  much  syntax,  until,  follow- 
ing the  excellent  method  of  the  French  grammarians,  I  re- 
solved to  separate  entirely  inflection  and  syntax.  I  have  in 
this  edition  transferred  several  paragraphs  from  Part  I.  to 
Part  II.  Part  II.  is  a  historical  foundation  broad  enough  for 
Part  I.  to  rest  upon.  It  is  not  intended  to  be  a  minute  his- 
torical reference-grammar  for  teachers  and  specialists  only. 

The  word-index  has  been  very  much  enlarged.     With  the 
demand  for  the  traditional  list  of  irregular  verbs,  "which  no 


IV  PREFACE   TO   THE   FOURTH    EDITIOIT. 

grammar  should  be  without,"  I  have  comphed  so  far  as  to 
include  all  the  irregular  verbs  in  the  word-index  (see  intro- 
ductory remarks  on  p.  271).  I  wanted  to  make  the  G.-Eng. 
vocabulary  cover  all  the  sentences  and  words,  but  found  that 
it  would  swell  the  book  too  much.  It  is  complete  only  for 
Part  I.  (see  p.  271). 

The  list  of  reference-books  has  been  omitted  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  Prof.  Ripley. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  enumerate  the  distinguishing 

features   of   the   grammar :    (1)    the  complete  separation  of 

inflection  and   syntax ;    (2)    the   historical  treatment  of  the 

latter,  that  should  make  it  a  welcome  aid  in  the  reading  of 

16th,  17th,  and  18th  century  Literature ;  (3)  the  attempt  to 

treat  German  grammar  with  regard  to  the  present  stage  of 

Germanic  philology  ;    (4)  the  scientific  analysis  of  German 

sounds  and  accent. 

The  Author. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   SIXTH   EDITION. 

I  HAVE  finally  complied  fully  with  the  demand  for  a  sepa- 
rate List  of  Strong  and  Irregular  Verbs,  and  have  also  added 
more  extensive  inflections  of  substantives,  adjectives,  and 
verbs,  to  be  used  in  connection  with  the  first  section  of  the 
grammar. 

H.   C.   G.   B. 
Clinton,  N.  Y., 
April,  1893. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


PART  I.    SECTION  1. 

PAGH 

ACCIDENCE 1-47 

Pronunciation  with  Alphabets 1-5 

The  Articles 6-7 

Declension  of  Nouns 7-17 

Declension  and  Comparison  of  the  Adjective 17-31 

Numerals 21-33 

Pronouns 33-30 

Conjugation 30-47 

Weak  Verbs 35-37 

Strong  Verbs 37-43 

Anomalous  Verbs 44-47 


SECTION  2. 

SYNTAX. 

SPECIAL  SYNTAX 51-130 

Articles 51-55 

Nouns 56-74 

Gender 56-63 

Singular  and  Plural 63-64 

Cases 64-74 

Adjectives 74-80 

Numerals 80-83 

Pronouns 83-96 

Personal  Pronouns 83-85 

Reflexive  and  Reciprocal  Pronouns 86 


VI  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAOB 

Possessive  Pronouns 86-88 

Demonstrative  Pronouns. 88-91 

Interrogative  Pronouns 91-93 

Relative  Pronouns 93-95 

Indefinite  Pronouns 95-96 

Verbs 97-118 

CJassification  of  Verbs 97 

Auxiliary  Verbs 97-99 

Modal  Auxiliaries 99-102 

Voice 102-104 

Tenses 104-110 

Moods 110-112 

Infinitive 113-116 

Participles 116-118 

Gerundive 118 

Adverb 119 

Preposition 119-130 

Conjunction 130 

GENERAL  SYNTAX 131-152 

The  Simple  Sentence 131-135 

The  Compound  Sentence —  135-147 

Coordinate  Sentences 135-137 

Subordinate  Sentences 137-147 

Substantive  Clauses 137-138 

Adjective  Clauses 139 

Adverbial  Clauses 140-147 

Word-order 147-154 

PART  11.    ADVANCED  GRAMMAR. 

A.  Phonology 157-193 

Historical  Notes  on  the  Orthography 157-160 

Analysis  and  Description  of  German  Sounds 160-176 

Ablaut,  Umlaut 176-182 

Grimm's  Law,  Verner's  Law 182-189 

Accent 189-193 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS.  VU 

PAGE 

B.  Historical  Commentary  upon  the  Accidence 194-216 

Noun -Declension 194-198 

Adjective-Declension 198-199 

Pronouns 200-203 

Conjugation 203-216 

C.  History  of  the  Language 217-230 

Characteristics  of  the  Germanic  Languages 217 

Classification  of  the  Germanic  Languages 218 

Classification  of  the  German  Dialects 219-221 

History  of  "  German  " 221-228 

The  German  Word-stock 228-230 

D.  Wordformation 231-264 

Derivation  and  Composition  of  Substantives 232-245 

Derivation  and  Composition  of  Adjectives  and  Numerals..  245-251 

Derivation  and  Composition  of  Verbs 252-261 

Derivation  of  Adverbs,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections. .  261-264 


List  of  Abbreviations  and  Symbols  that  Require  Ex- 
planations   265 

Subject-Index 266-270 

Word-Index  and  Gekman-P^nglish  Vocabulary 271-286 

Appendix:    Fuller  Inflections  of  Substantives,  Adjectives, 


an 


d    Verbs;    and    a    List    of    Strong^    and    Irren;ular 


Verbs » 287-31 4 


THE    GERMAN   ALPHABET. 
1—2. 

German  type.       German  script,  Name.     German  type.       German  script.       Name. 


3t  a       ^,- 
S3  B       ^^ 


g   c 


/- 


q7 


£ 


Y 


®  9 

|)  I) 

3  i 

3  J 

®  I 

S  ( 

5Df  lit 


9le  ci  21 


5^^' 

^''^^, 


ah 

bay 

tsay 

day 

(b)ay 


^    f  (2//^      ■  ef 


gay 
hah 


yot 
kah 
el 
em 


^  n       W^/ 


£)  0 


^    t 
U    u 

3  a 


^y 


<>/ 


Q& 


cy> 


-T>^-r»-       -CAt- 


//       ah-umlaut 
(h)ai(r) 


He  ii  U 


-«-^    -c^       oh-umlaut 
''     oo- umlaut 


^/^    <-^  //    t-^  au  umlaut 


(=oi) 


en 

oh 

pay 

koo 

Air 

es 

lay 

(t)oo 

fou(l) 

vay 

ix 

ipsilon 

tset 


> 


tsay-hah 
tsay-kah 


U^-:r^ -^^^  es-tsay-hah 

cT^A/  (-  sh) 


PEONUNCIATION".  [3^ 


PRONUNCIATION. 

The  German  sounds  are  here  only  very  inaccurately  represented  by 
English  words  and  letters.  A  full  analysis  is  found  in  the  second  part, 
p.  160.  The  following  description,  with  a  few  key-words,  will  suffice  for 
the  beginner ;  but  it  is  meant  to  be  only  a  popular  description.  As  soon 
as  the  student  begins  to  read,  be  ought  to  study  Part  II.,  p.  160-174. 

3.  a  as  in  ^ug.  father :  5Sater,  5lal,  2ci\)\.  o,  not  in  Eng., 
but  similar  to  Scotch  a  as  in  Sc.  hand.  Land:    SRann,  2ant>, 

4.  B  =  Eng.  /;,  but  surd  (  =z=p)  at  the  end  of  words:  53ube, 
ipaube,  Dieb,  ?aub. 

5.  c,  rf  =  Eng.  k :  (Earl,  33a(Je,  SBiicfer. 

6.  ^,  not  in  Eng.,  but  in  Scotch  as  in  loch.  A  single  guttural 
sound.  Two  kinds  :  1.  Palatal  (forward)  after  palatal  vowels, 
viz.  :  e,  i,  b;  ii,  a,  ei,  eu,  and  in  the  suffix  ^fi^tn,  e.  g.,  \^,  Sfai^ter, 
S?lec^,  mbd)te,  euc^,  (Deriic^t,  meid),  ^3}iatchen,  SJtamac^en.  2.  Back- 
guttural  after  the  other  vowels,  a,  o,  u,  an,  e,  g.,  ac^,  ta&i,  2oc^, 
S3u(^,  33auc^  (betrog  in  N.  G.).  In  &t)arTm'tag  and  in  foreign 
words  rrr  Jc :  (E^ara'fter,  (£^or ;  also  like  fc^  in  foreign  words : 
(E^ampa'gner,  d)angie'ren,  (£t)ance. 

7.  h  =  Eng.  d,  but  surd  (=  t)  finally:  In,  boc^,  33ab,  Iitb. 

8.  c,  long,  similar  to  Eng.  a,  ay,  as  in  pay,  pate,  rate ;  short, 
like  Eng.  e,  as  in  met,  e:  gc^n,  ^eet,  mert;  e:  rcd)t,  SBette, 

9.  f  =  Eng./;  ^ojfen,  ipafen,  fii^ren,  glagge. 

10.  g  =  Eng.  g,  but  surd  (=:^)  finally:  glauben,  jJlagen, 
graben;  but  3:ag,  3ug,  fragte,  trug,  33alg. 

11.  §  =  Eng.  h  if  it  stands  initially  :  ipunt,  ^ofc,  ^afe. 
After  a  vowel  and  after  a  t  it  is  silent  :  ftcl)n,  fe^(e)n,  fal),  t^un, 
3;bat,  J^al.     See  the  dropping  of  ^,  p.  159. 

12.  I  similar  to  Eng.  i :  bin,  finre,  bringe. 

i  or  ic  =  Eng.  ee  in  feet :  »ier,  fiegcn,  ntir,  tir,  ^Qtl,  23iber« 


24]  PEOl^UNCIATION.  3 

13.  j  similar  to  Eng.  y :  Jung,  jagen,  ^<xc^* 

14.  i,d  =  Eng.  k:  Ra^t,  Bade,  ^alen. 

15.  (  similar  to  Eng.  / ;  2age,  la(^en,  wo^I,  @aal,  Bait), 

16.  m  =  Eng.  m ;  SJJold),  @aum,  fc^ttjtmmen. 

17.  11  =  Eng.  n.  1.  Initially,  finally,  and  before  a  den- 
tal: ^flagel,  nun,  f^in,  [enten,  ^ant,  ^unb.  2.  In  the  stem-syllable 
before  f,  and  combined  with  9  like  Eng.  ng  m  sing,  singer  : 
5tnfang,  ©anger,  Singer,  33anf,  fenlen,  Minlen;  but  an^ge^fommen, 
un::ge^euer> 

18.  5  =  Eng.  0,  oa,  in  hold,  foal :  53ote,  53oct,  tot,  rot,  Soo^, 
lo^,  J^on  (clay).  0  not  in  Eng.,  but  short  Sc.  0  ;  e.  g. :  2Bod)e, 
2o(^,  @tocf,  ^od  (not  at  all  Hke  Eng.  stock,  rock,  but  see  p.  164). 

19.  ^  =  like  Eng.  p :  plagen,  ^appe,  3:ra))per,  ©alo'pp. 

^f  =  p  +/;  ^funt,  ^ap%  ©umpf,  tapfer.  In  Eng.  only  in 
accidental  juxtaposition,  e.  g.,  "  a  cap  for  him,"  "  slop  for  me." 

^^  ia  foreign  words  only  =/;  ^foilologie',  S^elegra'p^. 

20.  q  always  followed  by  11,  similar  to  Eng.  qu:  quer, 
Duaft,  Duart,  Bequem. 

21.  r  unlike  Eng.  r.  1.  Trilled:  3^egen,  9ta^e,  fern,  gurr, 
treu.  This  is  the  standard  r.  2.  Uvular  or  guttural  in  K  G.^ 
very  much  like  the  guttural  (^,  but  sonant. 

22.  f,  ff,  ^,  ^  —  Eng.  surd  s:  ipau^v  ^flw|>,  SC^affer,  gluf, 
9)lu§e,  fein ;  but  initially  and  after  a  vowel  it  begins  surd  and 
ends  sonant,  as  in  N.  and  M.  G.  Standard  unsettled.  But 
see  p.  175. 

23.  jt§  =  Eng.  sh  (surd) :  fc^icfen,  fc()en!en,  ^afc^en,  ©c^Iange, 

24.  ft,  f^  =  fj^t,  ft^|i  initially  in  the  standard  pronuncia- 
tion and  in  S.  and  M.  G.  But  in  the  middle  and  at  the  end 
of  words,  in  N.  G.  also  at  the  beginning  of  words  =  Eng.  st, 
sp ;  f(^t,  i&jpi  <3tein,  ©tra^e,  (Stu^I,  ®pa§,  fprie^en;  st,  sp :  ^aft, 
Wiifte,  berften,  SGurft,  Sefpe,  ^afpeln.     N.  G.:  @pie§,  (Btod. 


4  PROKUI^CIATIOi^.  [25- 

25.  i,  if)  =  Eng.  / :  ^at,  ^atte,  Z^at,  m% 

26.  it  =  Eng.  00  in  too :  ^ut,  Sut,  33(ume,  33u(^,  33u^le, 
u  =  Eng.  u  in  pw^ ;  ^Butter,  ftu^en,  ©ul^ert, 

27.  b  =  Eng./ in  German  words:  5Satcr,  grcijel,  ttiel.  tj  = 
German  tti  in  foreign  words:  5Bifa'r,  ointijie'ren,  ^Safa'n^, 

28.  tti  like  Eng.  v  dento-labial :  better,  SBajJer,  marnett. 
After  fc^  labio-labial  like  u  after  q,  but  not  quite  like  Eng.  w  : 
©(^mefler,  (Sd?wei§,  (Sc^weUe.    But  see  p.  170. 

29.  y  in  foreign  words  and  ^g,  ^f  =  Eng.  x :  ^lleyantier, 
SBadj^,  gu(^^,  pd)fm,  fec^^. 

^  =  ii,  which  see. 

30.  J,  ^  =  Eng.  ^s,  as  in  cats,  rats :   3""9^/  3^"^,  SCaqe, 

c  in  foreign  words  before  e,  i,  j^,  d  =  ts  :  ccreBrat,  (Edfu'r,  Sifa'be, 
Si^Ko'p;  but  the  spelling  is  unsettled:  ^iQa'xxtf^mtmx,  3^n)u'v* 

31.  Modified  Vowels   (Umlauts). 

a  long  =  Eng.  ai  in  fair :  SSater,  9ldfcer,  jld^Iem. 

a  short  =  Eng.  and  Ger.  c  :  ipdnte,  SSdnte,  fatten. 

B  not  in  Eng.  It  has  the  Hp-position  of  o,  the  tongue- 
position  of  c:  long  in  bofe,  Ibfen,  ^ergoge;  short  in  33btler,  ^oUt, 
®erofle. 

ii  not  in  Eng.  It  has  the  lip-position  of  u,  the  tongue- 
position  of  it  long  in  ^ii^le,  33u(^er,  .^iid^lein;  short  in  ^Mtv, 
Siinbe,  33utteL 

^  =  5^  as  in  S^a'tt,  Si^pre'ffe,  only  in  foreign  words. 

32.  Diphthongs. 

ai  (rare)  and  ci  =  Eng.  i  in  find:  ^aifer,  ^al,  (eifc,  metf, 
blciben.      au  =  Eng.  ou  in  house:  Blau,  Jpau^,  9)Zaug, 

liu  and  cu  similar  to  Eng.  oi  in  exploit :  Wdu\t,  Vduttn,  33eute, 


37]  PRONUNCIATION".  5 

Quantity  of  Vowels. 

33.  Vowels  are  long  in  an  open  syllable,  e.  g.,  S^a^ge^, 
go^gen,  53u^d}er.  They  are  also  indicated:  1.  By  doubling,  but 
only  in  the  case  of  a,  e,  o:  ®aal,  @ecle,  9}^oo5.  2.  By  ^  after 
the  vowel  and  after  t :  ipa^n,  D^m,  i^n,  3:^ran,  2:^or.  3.  By  c 
after  i:  tie6,  2;ier,  ^ieL  4.  a  and  e  are  generally  long  before 
r,  xt,  rt) :  ti?ar,  rar,  ter,  n?ert,  ttjerten,  jart,  ^ferl).  Short  in  \txix^ 
(<  ?5a^rt),  SBarte,  (Sd^arte,  iperj,  ©(^merj. 

34.  The  vowels  are  short  before  more  than  one  consonant: 

35.  §  counts  as  a  single  consonant ;  it  becomes  ff  medially  (see 
'*  Rules,"  §  12),  e.  g.,  ^lu§  —  gluffe^,  %\m  ;  fltepen  —  flog,  QefloJTen.  The 
vowel  remains  long  before  inflectional  endings,  e.g.,  lot>en,  lobjl,  gelobt 
(but  ge'^abt,  gemoc^t) ;  also  in  a  closed  syllable,  when  the  stem- vowel  stands 
in  an  open  syllable  under  inflection,  e.  g.,  Sag,  Xa^o^ii]  Bug,  ^\x^o>ti.  But 
see  p.  175. 

Since  i!^  cannot  be  doubled,  there  is  no  telling  the  quantity  of  the  pre- 
ceding vowel  from  the  mere  looks  of  the  word:  e.^.,  long  in  33u(^  — 
SBud^eiS;  S^uc^  —  Slud^e^;  brac^  —  bracken;  but  short  in  S3ac^  —  23ac^e<5 ;  lac^en, 
wac^en.    As  a  rule,  shortness  may  be  expected. 

36.  The  division  into  syllables  difiers  somewhat  from  the  English 
custom.  The  "  Rules  "  §  26  show  how  words  are  divided  at  the  end  of  a 
line.  The  following  examples  will  illustrate  suflBlciently:  ]^a*=Bett,  fu(^=te, 
bc='e^ren,  S3ec*re,  ser^'tncn,  ge^^irrt,  SBafsfer,  ©tra^§e,  lo^d^en,  ro-ter,  ^in^ger  (but 
see  17),  ^i^n,  2Bet^jcn,  |)iHe,  ^ar^^fen,  k^ob^a(|ten,  nac^^a^gcn,  be^glau* 
M-gcn.  , 

37.  German  orthography  is  now  regulated  by  the  government,  and  the  student 
who  is  to  write  German  should  provide  himself  with  the  official,  iJicgeln  unb  SBorterwers 
jeic^niS  fur  bie  beutjc^e  9iec^tfc^reibung  in  ben  preu^ifii^en  ©d}ulen.  Serlin.  It  is  a  small 
convenient  guide  of  46  pages,  with  a  quite  full  word-list.    See  361,  2. 


THE  ARTICLES. 


[38- 


THE  ARTICLES. 

38.     The  definite  article  is  ter,  tie,  bad  +  the  ;  the  indefinite, 
ein,  eine,  ein  +  one,  an,  a. 

The  definite  article  declines: 


masc. 

fern. 

neuter. 

common  gender. 

Sing.  N.  ter 

tie 

tad 

Plu. 

tie 

G.  ted 

ter 

ted 

ter 

D.  tern 

ter 

bem 

ten 

A.  ten 

tie 

tad 

tie 

e  indefinite  article  declines: 

Sing.  N.  ein 

eine 

ettt 

G.  eined 

einer 

eined 

D.  einem 

einer 

einem 

A.  einen 

eine 

ein 

39.  The  articles  are  unaccented. 

The  definite  article  is  the  weakened  demonstrative  pronoun,  which 
has  chief  stress.  It  retains  the  short  original  forms  of  the  same.  The 
indefinite  article  is  the  weakened  numeral  ein,  which  also  has  chief  stress. 
To  mark  the  demonstrative  pronoun  and  the  numeral,  they  are  some- 
times printed  spaced  or  with  a  capital  letter :  5'iur  Stncn  ©c^ritt,  fo  bifl  bu 
fret,  F.  4563  ;  but  (£^  war  einmal  ein  o^bnig,  F.  2212.  2)cr  5)?of)r  fann  gctjn 
(Sch.).  ^i  t^ut  mir  lang'  fc^on  we^,  bap  \6)  V\ij  in  bcr  ®efellf*aft  W,  F. 
3470-1. 

40.  Owing  to  their  lack  of  accent  both  articles  suffer  aphaeresis  and 
apocope,  and  contraction  with  the  preceding  word,  most  frequently  with  a 
preposition :  bcm  and  ba^  are,  according  to  good  usage,  combined  with  the 
following  prepositions :  an,  auf,  bet,  burc^,  fur,  Winter,  in,  uber,  urn,  unter,  sen, 
ijcr,  and  ju;  e.  g.,  am,  an^,  aufs?,  in^,  um^,  »om,  etc.  In  general,  contractions 
with  dissyllabic  prepositions  are  rarer  in  the  classics,  common  in  the 
spoken  language,  which  allows  the  contraction  of  ben  whether  dative  plu- 
ral or  accusative  singular  masculine  with  the  above  and  also  with  other 
prepositions.  Some  such  are  even  in  the  classics  :  in  =  in"'n,  F.  2429,  „tn 
©effel,"  Lessing's  Nathan,  win  ©acf,"  „in  ^opf,"  «an  2ag.«    3n,  urn  contain 


43]  DECLEKSION   OF   NOUN'S.  7 

long  (see  389,5)  consonants  and  the  article  is  not  absent,  as  is  generally 
explained.  In  conversation  is  heard:  urn  5lrm,  »on  33aumett,  auf  n  f^elbern, 
mit'^n  ^anbett/ burc^''n  SBalb.  The  apostrophe  in  aufiJ,  iibcr"'^,  etc.,  is  not  at 
all  indispensable.  2)er,  dative  singular  feminine,  combines  properly  only 
with  ju  into  jur. 

41.  Attractions  of  the  definite  article,  especially  of  the  neuter,  to  pre- 
ceding words  other  than  prepositions  are  common  in  the  spoken  lan- 
guage, e.g.,  „\6)  roitt^^  93u(^  ^olen,"  ^er  ^at  ftc^^ig  S3ein  gebroc^en."  wS3inb^t^(3 
gjferb  ^au§  an"  (G.).    „Unb  |afl'^  titffen  »erlernt«  (F.  4485). 

1.  The  aphaeresis  of  ^ein"  common  in  the  spoken  language  is  also 
found  in  the  written,  e.g.,  „2Barf  auf  Vn  ©tu^l  bie  ^anbfd)uV"(Uh.).  Bold 
abbreviations  are  these  in  Chamisso's,  //^  t»ar  mal  ''nc  ^a^enfonigin.''  The 
dropping  of  ein  before  mal  is  not  unusual :  „(£^  tt)ar  ntal  ein  ^aifer;"  „%Vi6) 
war  mal  ein  SIM"  (Bu.).  Notice  fo'ne  for  fo  einc.  The  early  N.  H.  Q.  (16th 
century)  eim  for  einem  (comp.  M.  H.  G.  eime  for  eineme),  einn  or  ein  for 
einen  occur  still  in  some  South  German  dialects.  In  M.  H.  G.  the  aphae- 
resis of  ' '  ein  "  is  unheard  of,  while  the  definite  article  is  much  more 
pliant  than  in  the  present  classical  language.  Apocope  of  the  same  is 
still  allowable  in  certain  S.  G.  dialects. 

DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 

42.  Tlxere  are  three  sijstems  of  Declension,  the 
Strong  {Vowel,  Old),  the  Weah  (Consonant,  n-Declension 
or  JVew),  and  the  Mixed. 

TJie  sU^ong  declension  {see  43,  1)  has  (e)^  in  the  geni- 
tive singular ;  the  weah  has  (e)n  in  all  cases,  singular 
and  plural,  except  in  the  nominative  singular;  the 
mixed  has  (e)^  in  the  genitive  singular,  (e)n  in  the 
whole  plural. 

General  Rules. 

43.  1.  Feminine  nouns  never  vary  in  the  singular. 

2.  The  only  case-endings  are  (e)^  for  the  genitive  singular 
and  (e)n  for  the  dative  plural. 

3.  e  in  the  case-suffix  ought  to  stand  in  nouns  ending  in 
\,  §,  'A  h  ^  t/  P* 


B  DECLEirSION  OF  NOUNS.  [44- 

c  is  always  dropped  after  cl,  en,  em,  er,  (^en,Iein.  In  other 
cases  it  is  optional.  If  the  genitive  singular  has  e^,  then  the 
dative  singular  has  e  as  a  rule:  ipaufeiJ,  gu  .^^aufe. 

a.  Distribution  of  nouns  among  these  declensions  according 
to  gender: 

1.  The  bulk  of  feminine  nouns  belong  to  the  n-declension. 
No  neuters  at  all. 

2.  To  the  strong  declension  belong  mainly  mascuhne  and 
neuter  nouns,  and  a  few  feminines. 

3.  The  mixed  declension  includes  a  few  masculine  and 
neuter  nouns. 

Strong  Declension. 

44.  We  distinguish  for  practical  reasons  four  classes, 
according  to  the  formation  of  the  plural : 

1.  No  sign  unless  it  be  umlaut:  ba^  SBunter,  tie  SCunter;  ter 
SSater,  tie  5Sdter. 

2.  -e  without  umlaut:  tcr  Za^,  tie  2;age;  ta^  2o^,  tie  Sofe. 

3.  -e  with  umlaut :  ter  (Bo^n,  tie  ©b^ne  ;  tie  ^raft,  tic 
^rdfte. 

4.  -er  always  with  umlaut:  ta^  S3at,  tie  33dtcr;  tag  ^ani, 
tie  ^dufer. 

45.  FiKST  Cla.ss. — a.  No  sign: 

Sing.  N.  ter  ©paten  tag  ©ewerk  ter  Sngel 

G.  teg  (Bpateng  teg  ©en^erteg  teg  Sn^elg 

Plu.  D.  ten  ©paten  ten  ©emerBen  ten  Sngein 

All  other  cases  singular  and  plural  like  nominative  singular. 
6.   With  umlaut: 

Sing.  N.,  D.,  A.  ter  i^aten  ter  S3ruter 

G.  teg  Sateng  teg  ^ruterg 

Plu.  N.,  G.,  A.  tie  ^dten  tie  33riiter 

D.  ten  %aun  ten  33riitern 


48]  DECLENSION^   OF   NOUNS.  9 

46.  To  this  class,  which  never  take  c  in  the  G.  and  D. 
sing.,  belong: 

1.  Masculine  and  neuter  nouns  in  -et,  -cr,  -en,  -(^en,  -lein, 
-fel,  e.  g.,  ter  ^ebel,  ter  Splitter,  ter  ^Boten,  fcer  ipopfen,  ta^  ipuntAett, 
ca^  ^intletn,  tag  9latfel. 

2.  Neuters  of  the  form  ©e-e,  e.  g.,  tag  ®etreite,  ©efc^meibe. 

3.  The  names  of  kindred  in  -er:  3Satcr,  53ruter,  3:oc^ter,  SJiutter, 
(Bdjiuager,  all  with  umlaut.     Also  ter  ^afe. 

4.  Certain  nouns,  if  they  take  -n  in  the  nominative  singTi- 
lar,  as  they  may  according  to  usage:  ter  ^elfen,  ter  33runnen,  ter 
^ropfen,  ter  @c^rec!en  (these  so  generally).  The  following  not 
so  frequently  in  the  written  language:  ter  ^un!e(n),  33alfe(n), 
^riete(n),  ®etanfe(n),  ®efaUe(n),  (^(aube(it),  ^aufe(n),  5^ame(n), 
(Same(n),  (S(^ate(n). 

47.  1.  Sltent  (Dbem),  33robem,  ©ibam,  ©rofam  stand  isolated.  The  plural, 
if  it  occurs,  is  the  -e  of  the  next  class.  93rofamen,  f.,  is. more  common 
than  S3rofame.     See  501. 

2.  All  nouns  sub  4,  except  f^ricbc,  ©efaffc,  and  ©ebanfc,  were  weak  in 
M.  H.  G.,  and  are  not  yet  fullj  established  in  the  strong  declension. 
Since  usage  is  unsettled,  they  might  all  be  put  under  the  mixed  or  weak 
declension. 

48.  1.  Tlie  nouns  of  this  class  that  take  umlaut,  besides  the  names 
of  kindred  in  -er,  are  :  ber  Stpfel  +  apple,  5lcfer  +  acre,  SBoben  +  bottom, 
soil ;  i^aben,  thread  (bie  ^aben  +  fathoms),  ©artett  +  garden,  ^afv-n,  harbor, 
+  haven ;  jammer  +  hammer,  Saben  ( ?),  shutter,  shop  (store) ;  9)tangel, 
want,  Siiagel  +  nail,  Dfen  +  oven,  stove ;  ©attcl  +  saddle,  (Sd^aben*  harm 
(but  e<3  ift  Sc^abe,  it  is  too  bad);  ©c^nabel  beak,  ©(^wager  brother-in-law, 
SJogel;  bird,  -f-  fowl.  Two  neuters  take  umlaut :  ^Ipfter  +  cloister  <  L. 
daustrum,  and  2ager(?),  camp. 

2.  In  none  of  these  is  there  any  cause  that  could  produce  umlaut  as  in 
i  and  jo  stems  or  before  -ir.  Umlaut  has  arisen  from  analogy  with  these. 
5Jdter,  SWiitter,  SBruber,  Zod^ttx  had  umlaut  already  in  M.  H.  G.  This  way 
of  forming  the  plural  is  on  the  increase,  because  it  is  so  convenient  and 
some  way  of  indicating  the  plural  seems  necessary.  SBdgen,  Sdger,  etc., 
still  sound  objectionable,  but  have  no  worse  and  no  better  claim  to  cor- 
rectness than  the  above. 


10  DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS.  [49- 


49.     Second  Class. — Plural  ■ 

-e,  no  amlaut. 

Sing.  N.,  A.  ipunb 

tie  ^rangfal 

ta^  3a^r 

G.  Ui  ^unte^ 

ber  I^rangfal 

teg  3^^re^ 

D.  tern  ipunte 

ter  I^rangfal 

tern  ^oS^xt 

nu,  N.,G.,A.  ^unbe 

Xranpfalf 

3a^re 

D.  ipunten 

'Erangfalen 

3a^ren 

50.  To  this  class  belong: 

1.  A  small  number  of  feminines  in  -ni^  and  -fal,  e.  g.,  i{e 
I^rangfal,  2;ru6fal;  tie  ginfleniivJ,  ^etriibrtig,  pi.  -niije. 

2.  Many  masculines;  some  capable  of  umlaut,  but  without  it. 
These  may  be  considered  exceptions  to  the  third  class:  ter 
^ol+eel,  3lar  eagle,  2lrm -f  arm,  S3efu(^  visit,  2lmBo§  +  anvil, 
X)act?0  badger,  Xod^t,  wick,  ®rat  +  degree,  S^^im,  blade,  +  haulm, 
$uf  +  hoof,  ^unt  dog,  +  hound ;  Saci^g  salmon,  Saut  sound, 
Suci^g  +  lynx,  ^fat  +  path,  ^unft  +  point,  (Sc^u^  +  shoe,  3:ag  + 
day,  ©toff  material,  +  stuff;  2;^ron  +  throne,  5Serfu(^,  attempt, 
and  a  very  few  others. 

3.  Masculines  in  -ig,  -(i)(^,  -ing,  -ling,  -(e)nt),  -at,  -ig,  -id^t, 
e.  g.,  ter  greunt  +  friend,  ©dnferid)  +  gander,  S)abid>t  +  hawk, 
ipering  +  herring,  3I^t^  (pl-  S^tiffe)  pole-cat,  3iingling  +  youth, 
^i)nig  +  king,  Wlol&i  salamander,  ilRonat  +  month. 

4.  Many  neuters,  among  which  monosyllabics ;  those  with 
the  prefix  ®e-;  in  -ni^,  -fal :  tag  3<i^r+year,  ®ef(^en!  present, 
®cfdngnig  (pi.  -jTe)  prison,  ©c^icffat  fate. 

51.  The  group  sub  2  is  on  the  decrease,  because  we  cannot  tell  on 
the  surface  whether  a  noun  has  umlaut  or  not.  To  avoid  the  diflBculty, 
several  nouns  form  very  anomalous  plurals :  ber  fdau,  bie  Sauten  instead 
of  Sauc.  Of  SWorb,  pi.  5Worbc  is  rare,  rather  5Worbt^aten;  of  ©c^mucf,  pi. 
(S(^mu(fe  is  rare,  rather  ©c^mutffac^en ;  <Sc^Iu(f ,  pi.  <S(^Iucf e  is  seldom  used, 
since  it  stands  in  the  singular  after  a  number,  e.  g.,  brei  <S(^Iu(f  SSrannt' 
mm.    See  173. 


55]  DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS.  11 

52.     Third  Class. — Plural  -t,  with  umlaut. 

Sing.  N.,  A.  l)er  'Biamm 
G-.  te0  (Stammer 
D.  tern  ©tammc 


tie  ^u^ 

Me  53raut 

ter  ^u^ 

ter  Sraut 

fcer  ^u^ 

ter  Sraut 

^u^e 

33raute 

^iileit 

S3rauten 

Plu.  N..A.,G.  ©tamme 

D.  ©tdmmen 

53.  To  this  class  belong : 

1.  The  majority  of  strong  masculine  nouns,  mostly  monosyl- 
lables :  fcer  ©efang  +  song,  ®e6rau(^  use,  S3an  +  ball,  ®afl  + 
guest,  ©o^n  +  son,  etc. 

2.  A  number  of  feminine  nouns  :  tie  Slngfl  +  anxiety,  5l):t 
+  axe,  S3an!  +  bench  +  bank,  ^runft,  heat,  lust ;  53rup  + 
breast,  gauft  +  fist,  f^^uc^t  -|-  fruit,  ®an^  +  goose,  ©ruft 
vault,  ipanb  +  hand,  ^aut  +  hide,  ^(uft  +  cleft,  ^funft  in 
compounds  as  in  (£in!unft  +  income;  Sau^  +  louse,  Suft  air, 
Swft  desire,  SRac^t  +  might,  5[Ragt)  +  maid,  servant ;  'Mau^ 
+  mouse,  5^ac^t  +  night,  5'^al)t  seam,  ^^^u^  +  nut,  @au  +  sow 
(Sc^nur  string,  @tatt  city,  2Bant>  wall  (of  a  room),  SCurft 
sausage,  3^n\t  guild  ;  5lu^flu(^t  evasion,  Slrmtrujl  cross-bow, 
©efcbnjulft  +  swelhng. 

54.  Only  two  modern  neuter  nouns  belong  here,  the  last 
of  which  is  of  doubtful  gender,  viz.:  'La^  ?5(o§  raft  (429,  1); 
ter  or  rag  S^or  +  choir,  chorus. 

55.  No  neuters  belong  here  really  except  0.  H.  G.  men,  ha^  9)?eer,  bic 
^ttn,  now  according  to  2d  Class.  1)er  and  ba^  S^or,  borrowed  from 
church  Latin  "chorus,"  has  joined  the  group  sub  2.  S)a^  SBoot,  bie  93ote 
because  it  was  also  ber  S3oot,  a  modern  borrowed  word  <  D.  1)ie  S3ootc 
is  more  elegant.  1)a^  9lo'^r,  bie  fRo^xt  is  not  good.  Besides  there  is  bie 
9^oI)re,  feminine  singular,  the  pipe,  tube. 


12 


DECLEKSIOX  OF  NOUNS. 


[56- 


56.     FouETH  Class. — Plural  -cr,  always  with  umlaut: 


Sing.  N.,  A.  tag  9lat) 

G.  teg  3flabeg 

D.  tern  3flate 

Flu.  N.,  G.,  A.  3fldter 

D.  ten  3ldtem 


3rrtum 
teg  3rrtumg 
tent  Si^rtumc 

Srrtiimer 
ten  3rrtumem 


57.  To  this  class  belong: 

1.  About  sixty  neuter  monosyllabics :  tag  2lag  (Sfer),  53latt, 
l:ac^,  ^a&j,  etc. 

2.  All  in  -turn,  whether  masculine  or  neuter:  tag  Jperjo^tum, 
ter  9^eic^tum. 

3.  Some  masculines,  viz.:  ter  53bfettji(^t*,  Torn*,  (Seifl,  ®ott, 
Seib,  'Mann,  Drt*,  dianX),  ©traud)*,  5Sormunt,  3Balc,  2Curm. 

4.  A  few  neuters,  with  the  prefix  (5)e-  :  tag  ©emac^,  ©emiit, 
®efd)Ied)t*,  (iJefidjt*,  ©efpenfl,  ®en?ant*, 

58.  Only  neuters  had  this  plural  -er  at  first.  Of  the  sixty 
sub  1,  some  tweniy  form  a  different  plural,  and  usage  is  unset- 
tled; so  do  those  sub  3  and  4  marked  with  a  *.  In  the  fol- 
lowing a  distinction  is  made  in  meaning  between  the  different 
forms  of  the  plural: 


Subl, 

2,4,- 

tag  53ant, 

33ante,  ties, 

SBiinter,  ribbons. 

!Den!mat, 

-male,  monuments, 

-mdler,  figurative  sense. 

Xing, 

Xtttge,  things. 

dinger,  coll.,  e.  g.,  girls. 

m[i6>t, 

®efid)te,  visions. 

©eft^ter,  faces. 

®enjant, 

©eirante  (poetic). 

©etrdnter  (commonly). 

Sant, 

Sante  (poetic), 

Sdnter  (commonly). 

mt, 

Sic^te,  candles  (only). 

Sid)ter,  lights. 

edjilt, 

masc.  ^cbilce,  shields, 

<B^\\Ux  (sign-board). 

©tift, 

masc.  8tifte,  pencils, 

(^tifter,  institutions. 

2u*, 

Juc^e,  kinds  of  cloth. 

Zn^tx,  cloths,  shawls. 

SBort, 

SBorte,  words  (their  mean- 

Shorter,  parts  of  speech 

ing), 


62]  DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS.  13 

Sub3,— 

ber  ?iJJann,    Wanmrx,  retinue,  banner,  men. 

V)xt,  Orten,  D.  and  G.  pi.  only,     t)xtiv,  places,  towns. 

59.  S^rummcr  occurs  in  the  plural  only.  But  a  weak  plural  ^irummern 
occurs  in  the  classics.  Singular  Xrumm  +  thrum,  w^au^ten,"  as  dative 
plural,  is  isolated  in  „]U  ben  ^duptcn."  9)?ann  was  originally  a  cows-stem, 
*mann-  (see  Kluge's  Diet.).  The  form  2)iann  in  fiinfjig  9)?ann  is  the  real 
nominative  plural  of  the  cons-stem.  Mtn\d^  was  originally  neuter,  being 
an  adjective  0.  H.  G.  mennisco.  2)a<g  3Jlenfii),  tie  9)?enfd)er,  now  implies  a 
slur,  speaking  of  woman  =  strumpet  (see  Kluge's  Diet,).  2Btd^t  in  23ofc«» 
tt)id)t  was  also  once  a  neuter,  +  wight.     See  431. 

60.  In  early  N.  H.  G.  many  of  the  neuters  still  occur  without  -er. 
filibeg  ^inb  werben  beine  SQBerf  preifen  (B.).  .Einber  unb  ^inbe^  ^inb  (erjd^len) 
»on  bem  ^olf  noc^  unb  feinen  ©c^aren  (Sch.). 

The  plural  in  -^  is  not  elegant.  (Sdbcl^,  Sungen^,  i^rauen^,  i^rduleind 
are  more  than  colloquial,  though  found  in  the  classics.  Tliis  -^  is  strictly 
Low  German,  and  identical  with  English  s.  The  parts  of  speech  are 
used  with  ^ :  bic  %6^i,  bie  W>zxi,  bie  SBenn^. 

Weak  or  n-Declension. 

61.  Characteristics:  (e)n  in  the  plural  and  also  in  the  sin- 
gular of  masculine,  except  the  nominative. 

Masc.  Fern. 

Sing.  N.  tcr  33otc  ,  Whole  sing,  ^uno^t 

G.  te^  53oten 
All  through  sing,  and  plu.  Whole  plu.  2viXiO,tXi 

Only  feminine  and  mascuHne  nouns  belong  to  this  declen- 
sion. 

Like  3ungc  decline  all  feminines,  except  :  1.  9}Zutter  and 
Jodjter.  2.  The  few  in  -ni<3  and  -fal  (see  50.  1).  3.  The 
strong  of  the  3d  class  (see  53,  2). 

62.  Of  the  masculines  belong  here : 

1.  All  of  two  or  more  syllables  ending  in  e,  except  ^dfe  and 
the  doubtful  strong  ones  sub  4,  1st  class  (see  46). 


14  DECLEIfSION'   OF  NOUNS.  [63- 

2.  Tlie  following  whicli  generally  do  not  show  the  e,  which 
belongs  to  them:  ter  Sdr,  33auer,  33urf4  giirft,  Bi»^  ®f(f,  ®c|'ell(e), 
©raf,  ^ageftolj,  ^elc,  s>m,  <pirte,  Snfajje,  ?i)Zenfd),  ^:»Zo^r,  ^axv,  Dc^fe, 
Spring,  ^fau,  @pa^,  ®pro§,  (Steinme^,  3:^or  (fool),  5Sorfa^r» 

3.  Many  nouus  of  foreign  origin,  which  are  difficult  to  tell 
from  strong  nouns,  many  of  them  names  of  persons  and  ani- 
mals. They  generally  end  in  -t,  -nt,  -ft,  with  the  suffix  -grap^, 
-av6^,  -txat,  -log(e),  -nom,  e.  g.,  g)oe't,  33aul>i't,  ^mtM'i,  ^atrio't, 
5lr(^ite'ft,  ^ome't,  f  lane't,  ^onfona'nt,  eture'nt,  5>^anta'ft,  Jelegra'p^, 
©eogra'p^,  ^atria'rd),  9J?ona'rdj,  Slutofra't,  S^emofra't,  2lftroIo'9(e), 
^l)iIoIo'3e,    2lftrono'm,    De!ono'm    (polite  for   "farmer");   also 

4.  Some  names  of  nationalities  in  -ax,  and  -er,  e.  g.,  ter 
U'ngar,  Bul9a'r(e),  Jata'r,  Saier,  ^ommer,  Gaffer.  ' 

5.  The  adjective  used  as  a  noun  when  preceded  by  the  arti- 
cle (see  220). 

Remark.— An  isolated  form  is  now  ,,auf  grben."  Grbe  was  either  weak  or  strong. 
Bnt  „in  e^ren,"  „mit  greufcen"  are  old  datives  plural  (see  434. 1).  Notice  the  spelling 
fionigin,  pi.  Soniginnen. 

Mixed  Declension. 

63.     Characteristics :  G.  sing,  (e)^,  the  whole  pi.  (e)tt» 
Only  mascuHne  and  neuter  nouns  belong  to  this  declension, 
and  very  few  have  not  double  forms  for  genitive  singulai'  and 
for  the  plural.     The  following  generally  belong  here : 

1.  2l'u(je,  mt,  Snbe,  ©e^atter,  ^emD,  Worker,  ^aft,  ^tucfel,  D^r, 
^anto'ffel,  'SAmeq,  (See,  <Bta6>d,  Staat.  9^aAbar,  Untcrthm,  55etter 
sometimes  retain  in  genitive  singular  the  (e)n  of  tlieh'  former 
declension.   S3a«er,  peasant  sub  62,  2  is  sometimes  classed  here. 

'Ea^  ipcrj  inflects  G.  te5  ^er^en^,  D.  tent  ^erjen,  A.  tai?  iperj; 
allowing  for  its  being  a  neuter,  which  always  has  nominative 
and  accusative  singular  alike,  it  really  comes  under  1st  Class, 
strong,  sub  4  (see  46).  Sd^mcrj  rarely  has  ©cfcmerjen^,  Xer8porn, 


64]  DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS.  15 

te^  (Sporn^,  has  taken  an  -n  in  the  singular,  but  the  old  weak 
plural  ©poren  is  still  the  rule,  though  (Spornen  occurs.  Z^xontn, 
borrowed  in  M.  H.  G.  <  Gr.-L.  thronos,  is  very  rare.  The 
plural  of  Dorrt  is  either  X;orne  (old)  or  generally  rornen ;  also 
Corner, 

The  mixed  declension  is  quite  modern,  and  does  not  exist  in  M.  H.  G. 

2.  Foreign  nouns  in  -or  (o  long  and  accented  in  the  plural, 
short  and  unaccented  in  the  singular),  e.  g.,  Itx  Xo'ftor,  Ik 
'^otto'xm,  fccr  ^rofe'jjor,  tie  ^rofeJTo'ren.  Also  Snfe'ft,  3«tere'jye, 
Sume'I,  (Btatu't,  and  others. 

Colloquially  one  hear  8  sometimes  -n  after  nouns  in -cl  and  -er:  bie  §ummern,  lobsters; 
©tiefeln,  boots  ;  but  they  are  not  to  be  imitated. 

Declension  of  Foreign  Nouns. 

64.  Those  which  are  fully  naturalized  come  under  the 
declensions  already  treated  of.  It  remains  to  speak  of  those 
not  at  all  or  partly  naturalized,  and  their  inflection  is  very 
irregular  and  complicated. 

1.  Those  that  retain  their  foreign  inflection,  e.  g.,  3efu^ 
SW"^,3^m  ^Wti;  iD^art'a,  9)^ariae;  ^otuw%  pi.  ^JJobi ;  (Eafu^,pl. 
(Eafu^  ;  d^cvnb,  pi.  St^eruHm  ;  Sonto,  pi.  Sonti  ;  ©aefulum,  pi. 
@ae!ula;  2orb,  pi.  Sorr^;  2;empUtf,  pi.  Jempora*  Their  number 
is  decreasing. 

2.  Those  which  take  a  German  plural  ending,  -en  for 
instance,  and  do  not  inflect  in  the  singular,  e.  g. :  ta^  Xrama, 
pi.  !Dramen  ;  Z^tma,  pi.  Zhtrrnn  ;  Stttioi'cuum,  pi.  3«^t»ituen. 
©lobu^,  S^lpt^mu^*  But  these  are  also  found  with  -i  in  geni- 
tive singular,  and  then  come  under  the  mixed  declension. 

3.  Nouns  whose  foreign  plural  ended  in  -ia  take  -ten: 
(Shittum,  pi.  ©tutien  ;  ©pmnafium,  pi.  ©i^mnaftcn.  The  ending 
of  the  singular  may  have  been  lost,  and  they  have  -5  in  geni- 
tive singular,  as  2lCoe'r6,  partici'p,  ©emina'r,  ^inera'I,  Sofft'l,  pL 


16  DECLENSIOJSr   OF   NOUNS.  [65- 

SlCijerfeten,  gofftUett,  etc.  Notice  ^ri'ma^,  ^rima'ten;  5l'tla^,  5ltla'n^ 
ten ;  ^rifi^,  ^rifen»  On  the  whole,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  ir- 
regularity, and  therefore  freedom,  in  the  inflection  of  foreign 
words. 

Declension  of  Proper  Nouns. 

65.  1.  The  names  of  nations  and  peoples  are  inflected  both 
in  the  singular  and  plural.  Those  in  -er  (except  53a{er  and 
^ommer,  where  -er  is  not  suffix,  denoting  origin)  go  according 
to  1st  Class  (strong).  All  the  others  go  according  to  the 
n-declension  :  Der  ipamburger,  te^  ipamburger^,  etc.,  D.  pi.  ten 
ipamburgern*  But  ter  ©ad^ie,  te^  (Sac^fen;  ter  ^reu^e,  u^  ^reupen, 
etc. 

2.  Certain  geographical  names  (see  147),  which  always 
have  the  definite  article,  are  treated  like  any  common  noun, 
e.  g.,  fcer  9H)ein,  te^  WCjiini,  ta^  i^idbtelgeHrge  te^  -ea  j  ta^  Slfa§,  t»e^ 
Slfaffe^;  t)ie  ©d^meij,  Ux  (^(^meig,  etc. 

3.  Names  of  persons  are  uninflected  if  preceded  by  the  arti- 
cle (an  adjective  or  title  between  article  and  name  makes  no 
diff'erence),  e.^.,  be^  ^arl,  teg  ^aifer^  ^arl,  tern  gro^en  ^rietrtd^. 
If  the  title  follows  the  name,  or  if  the  name  in  the  genitive, 
modifled  by  an  adjective,  stands  before  the  noun  upon  which 
it  depends,  then  the  name  takes  -g,  e.  g.,  tag  9letd)  Sutwigg  teg 
grommen,  teg  grogen  grietrid^g  ©enerale* 

4.  Names  of  persons,  places,  and  countries  without  an  arti- 
cle take  a  genitive  in  -eg:  ®oet^e,  (5)oet^eg;  Snglant,  Snglantg; 
3lnna,  5lnnag.  But  names  of  males  ending  in  a  sibilant,  if 
inflected  at  all  and  an  apostrophe  is  not  preferred,  and  femi- 
nine names  in  -e,  form  a  genitive  in  -eng,<?.  g.,  SO^ayeng,  granjeng, 
^[Rarteng,  <3orticng.  Surnames  in  a  sibilant  certainly  prefer  an 
apostrophe,  e.g.,  ?5}?ufdug'  ^Sollgmard^en,  Dpi^'  Serfe,  %m^'  3:ot. 
Names  of  places  in  a  sibilant  are  constructed  with  »on:  tic 
3fleid?gfrei^eit  »on  ^o'njlanj,  tie  Sefefligungen  »on  9)ari'g, 


69]  DECLEKSIOIT   OF  AJDECTIYES.  17 

66.  A  dative  and  an  accusative  in  -en  of  names  of  persons  are  liardly 
in  use  now,  as  e.  g.,  ©c^illern,  ©oet^cn,  ^lojjjlotfen.  Christian  feminine 
names  retain  them  more  easily  than  masculine,  e.g.,  ^aji  bu  3)?arien 
0ef))rod)en  ?  See  68,  3.  Such  genitives  as  9)iutter(3  S^ob,  ZaniiXii  ©e^urtsJtag 
are  hardly  proper. 

67.  Plurals  of  names  of  persons  are  formed  in  various 
ways.  The  general  rule  is  :  -e  for  masculine  and  -e(n)  for 
feminine  names,  e,  g.,  §einri(^e,  Garten  ;  but  also  33run^ilte, 
SUfabete*  -^  forms  the  plural  of  mascuhnes  ending  in  a  vowel 
and  of  feminines  in  -a :  2lnna^,  ipugo^* 

68.  1.  Here  also  belongs  the  plural  of  surnames  denoting  the  mem- 
bers of  the  family,  formed  by  -g  if  ending  in  a  consonant  not  a  sibilant ; 
by  -(e)n  if  ending  in  a  vowel  or  a  sibilant  (occurs  only  in  familiar  lan- 
guage however),  e.  g.,  ©teinbriiggen*  the  Steinbriigges ;  ©u^Iing^,  the 
Suhling  family  ;  ^U(f^.  Other  endings  for  the  plural,  generally  of  for- 
eign names  however,  are  -ne,  -nen :  Gato,  Satone;  ©cipionen,  Dttone,  and 
Dttonen ;  but  the  first  n  belongs  to  the  stem  of  course.  Compare  L. 
iScipio,  Scipionis.     This  ^  was  perhaps  originally  a  G.  sing. 

2.  Biblical  names  retain  foreign  inflection :  Ssangeltunt  Matt^ati,  in  3efu 
S^rtjlo,  ?Wartae  ^eimfud^ung. 

3.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  rule  in  the  classical  writers 
before  Goethe's  death  is  not  the  rule  now.  Lessing  wrote  be^  Sutler ^,  beS 
^Keland^t^on*? ;  Goethe,  Ceiben  beiS  jungen  2Bert{)eri3.  The  dative  and  accusa- 
tive in  -en  are  the  rule  in  them,  the  exception  now,  ^akn  ©ie  ^arlen 
gefc^rieien,  SBil^elmen  gefuc^t  ? 


DECLENSION   OF  THE   ADJECTIVE. 

69.  The  adjective  is  inflected  according  to  two  sys- 
tems of  declension,  the  Strong  and  the  Weak.  It  is 
inflected  strong  when  there  is  no  limiting  word,  before 
it ;  weah,  when  there  is  an  article  or  demonstrative 
pronoun.    It  is  uninflected  in  the  predicate. 


18  DECLENSIOlif  OF  ADJECTIVES.  [70- 


1.  Strong  : 

inasc. 

fern. 

nenter. 

common  gender 

Sing.  N.  guter 

gute 

guteg 

Plu.  N.  gute 

G.  gutes 

guter 

gute^ 

G.  guter 

D.  gutem 

guter 

gutem 

D.  guten 

A.  guten 

gute 

gute^ 

A.  gute 

2.  Weak: 

masc. 

fern. 

neuter. 

Sing,  N.  ber 

gute 

tie  gute 

ta^  gute 

A.  ten 

guten 

tie  gute 

tag  gute 

'All  other  cases,  sing,  and  plu.,  guten. 

Notice  that  the  nominative  and  accusative  singular  of  the 
feminine  and  neuter  forms  are  alike. 

70.  After  ein,  fein,  and  the  possessive  pronouns  the  adjec- 
tive is  strong  in  the  nominative  singular  of  all  genders  and  in 
the  accusative  singular  of  feminine  and  neuter,  since  it  is  like 
the  nominative.     The  whole  pi.  is  weak. 

^^.N.  ein  grower  Xi(^ter,      eine  rote  ^ir]%,    ein  |errli(beg  ©etie^t 
G.  eineg  gro^en  I^id^tcr^,  einer  roten  ^irfi^e,  eine^  ^errlic^en  ©etic^te^ 
D.  einem  gro§en  Xtd)ter,  einer  roten  ^irfc^e,  einem  ^errlicben  ©etic^te 
A.  einen  gro§en  i:ic^ter,  eine  rote  ^irf^e,   ein  ^errlicbe^  ©etiAt. 

71.  Adjectives  ending  in  -el,  -er,  -en  as  a  rule  drop  the  e  of  these 
suffixes  when  inflected,  sometimes  however  the  e  of  the  case-ending  -en# 
e.g.,  ebel,  ebler,  cble,  eble^;  mager,  ntagrer,  magre,  magre^;  eigen,  eigner,  eigne, 
eigne^;  but  ^eitern  and  ^eitren,  ebleu  and  ebeln.  Those  in  -er  like  to  retain 
both  c's:  '^etterer,  l^eitere,  '^ettcre^.  Note  therefore:  ©in  magrer  Dc^fc,  cincd 
magern  or  magren  DAfen,  etc.;  ber  ^eitere  or  ^citre  ^immcl,  bed  ^eiteren,  "^eitren, 
or  ^eitern  ^immeU,  etc. ;  mein  eignei^  ^cm^,  mtmi  cigenen  or  eignen  ^aufe^,  etc. 
For  ^0(^,  t)ckr,  ^o^e,  '^e^ea  see  490,  3,  h. 

72.  The  genitive  singular  masculine  and  neuter,  -e^,  is  now  so  regu- 
larly replaced  by  -en,  that  tbis  should  perhaps  appear  in  the  paradigm. 
Though  strictly  according  to  rule,  -e^  has  become  the  exception;  -en  has 
prevailed  since  the  17th  century.  Voss,  Klopstock,  and  Grimm  opposed 
it.  Goethe  favors  it.  Sin,  fein,  the  possessive  and  the  demonstrative 
pronouns  never  allow  -en  for  -e^  j  never  tcinen  SJianne^,  biefen  SBuc^ed. 


75]  COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES.  19 


COMPARISON   OF   THE   ADJECTIVE. 

73.     Adjectives  are  compared  by  means  of  the  inflectional 
suffixes  -er  and  -(e)  ft,  e.  g. : 


positive. 

comparative. 

superlative. 

iung 

iitnger 

jiingft 

fcbbn 

fd^bner 

Wbnjl 

reicb 

rei(^er 

reidjft 

Those  in  -el,  -en,  -er  lose  this  e  before  the  comparative  -er ; 
but  retain  it  and  lose  the  e  of  -ej^  in  the  superlative,  e.  g., 
mager,  magrer,  magerft;  inntd,  t)unf(er,  t>unfelft.  e  in  -eft  is  as  a 
rule  retained  after  t),  t,  &,  fe,  3,  rd>,  §,  and  ft,  but  not  necessarily, 
e.  g.,  lautefte,  getriffefte,  fii^efte.  ®rb^te  alone  is  classical,  but  in 
the  spoken  language  fii^te,  ^ei^te,  fiirgte,  etc.,  are  heard.  „^o&)" 
retains  the  former  t)  in  the  comparative  ^b^er,  and  ^  in  na'^e 
becomes  c^:  nac^ft*     See  490,  3,  b. 

74.  The  umlaut  generally  takes  place,  but  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  tell  when  it  does  not.  A  not  small  number  are  doubt- 
ful, €.  g.,  Ha§,  gefunt),  fromm,  etc.  No  umlaut  in  :  1.  Those 
with  the  stem- vowel  an,  e.g.,  lau,  Han,  etc.  2.  Foreign  ones: 
6ra»,  noM,  etc.  3.  Participles:  befncbt,  gemantt,  etc.  4.  Deriva- 
tives ;  ftraf6ar,  fd)al!^aft,  langfam,  unglanHid),  etc.  5.  33nnt,  Hanf, 
fcnmpf,  falfc^,  flacfc,  fro^,  ^o^l,  ^olt,  ia^l,  !(ar,  la^m,  Ia§,  lo^,  matt; 
morf^,  |)latt,  plump,  rafd),  ro^,  run^,  fanft,  fatt,  fc^taff,  fd)lan!,  fd)roff, 
ftarr,  ftolj,  ftraff,  toll,  ^otl,  ma^^r,  ^a^m,  jart. 

75.  The  comparative  and  superlative  forms  are  declined 
just  like  the  positive.     Examples  : 

®rb§erer  @pag,  grb^ere^  or  grb§eren  ©page^,  etc. ;  fcer  grb^ere 
®pa§,  te^  grb^eren  (Spa§e^,  etc. ;  ein  grb^erer  ©pag 

^larfte^  SCajfer,  ba^  Harfte  SBaffer,  ein  Harfte^  Staffer. 

dllmv  ^ann,  ber  etfere  ^^ann,  ein  etierer  ^ann;  eitelfter  33urf^, 
ber  eitelfte  33urfd),  ein  eitelfter  53ur|'^» 


20 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


[76- 


^eifrer  ©anger,  ber  '^eifrerc  Sanger,  ein  ^eifrerer  ©anger,  G.  eine^ 
^eifreren  ©dnger^,  etc. ;  ter  ^eiferfte  ©anger. 

76.     1.  Irregular  Comparison. 
By  the  use  of  different  stems: 


Positive. 

gut  +  good 
loiel 

(gering  or  wenig) 


Comparative. 

bejfer,  adv.  ba§  -f  better 
nte^r  +  more 
me^rer 
minter 


Superlative. 

befl  +  best 
meifi  +  most 
me^r|l 
mintejl 


®ut  and  »icl  are  never  compared  regularly.  ?0^e^rer  and  me^rjl 
are  due  to  double  comparison.  „  jiJJe^rft,"  though  occurring  in 
Goethe  and  Schiller,  is  not  classical.  5)Jet>r  and  minter  are  really 
not  adjectives,  but  are  used  adverbially  and  substantively.  „53a§„ 
(me^r,  very,  much)  is  now  archaic.  ,Xo6>  bap  ^e^t  i^n  ter  Un!c 
9)Zann"  (Bii.).  ^urBa§  (onward);  „ba§"  also  means  fe^r,  ftarf:  „X:a3 
ntad^t,  er  t^dt  fid)  6a§  ^eroor"  (Sch.).  „Unt  marc  nicfct  me^r  gefe^n" 
(G.).     ^IRorgen  ein  me^rere^  =  to-morrow  (I  will  write)  more. 

2.  Defective  and  Redundant  Comparison. 

a.  There  is  a  class  of  adjectives  derived  from  adverbs  and 
prepositions  : 

Adv.  or  prep.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

(aufer)  du§er  du§erfi 

(Winter)  Winter  ^interjl 

(inner)  inner  innerjl 

(nieter)  nieter  (rare)  nieterjl 

(ob[er])  ober  oberjl 

(unter)  unter  unterfl 

(t)or,  fort)  »orrer  tjorterjl 

For  the  derivation  of  these  adverbs,  see  551,  3.  The 
superlative  suffix  -ft  is  added  to  the  comparative.  This  is 
due  to  their  former  full  comparison,  as  for  instance,  O.  H.  G. 
pos.  hintaro,    comp.  hintarorOj    superl.  hinlardst.      The  pres- 


77J 


NUMEEALS. 


21 


ent  comparatives  ^intere,  obere  are  not  even  now  felt  as  real 
comparatives  ;  du§er  has  a  spurious  umlaut ;  „bberfte"  and 
„forterfte"  are  colloquial ;  „»orter"  comes  from  „fort/'  O.  H.  G. 
fordar  ;  compare  Eng.  further,  which  has  nothing  to  do  with 
far. 

Positive. 

6.    (mittel)  +  middle 
(e^e,  conj.) 
(lag  +  late) 
(fur) 

The  first  compares  regularly  like  an  adjective  in  -eL  The 
positive  occurs  only  in  compounds  now,  and  the  comparative 
has  the  force  of  the  positive. 


Comparative. 

mittler 

Superlative. 

mittelft 

(c|er,  adv.)  + 

ere 

erft  +  erst 
le^t  +  last 

(fiirter,  adv.) 

gurjl  (subst.)  + first 

NUMERALS. 


77.  Cardinals. 


ein^,  +  one 

jmet,  -f  two 

trei,  +  three 

ijier,  +  four 

fiinf,  -f  five 

fcdjg,  4-  six 

fteben,  +  seven 

ad>t,  +  eight 

tteun,  +  nine 

ge^n,  +  ten 

elf,  eilf,  olf,  4-  eleven 

jttjelf,  jtrblf,  4-  twelve 

bretje^n,  +  thirteen 

tJterje^n,  +  fourteen 

fiinfje^n,  +  fifteen 

fec^(g)ge^n,  +  sixteen 

atranjig,  +  twenty 

ein  un5  jtoan^ig,  -r  twenty-one 


gmei  unD  gnjangig,  +  twenty-two 

trei  unt  jwangig,  -|-  twenty-three 

trei§tg,  -|-  thirty 

ein  unb  trei§tg,  +  thirty-one 

ijterjig,  H-  forty 

fiinfjig,  funfaig,  -}-  fifty 

fed^^Sig,  fec^jtg,  +  sixty 

fieB(en)3ig,  -j-  seventy 

mm,  +  eighty 

tteunjig,  -t-  ninety 

^untert  (t)a^  ^unfcert),  -f  a  hun- 
dred 

(ein)  ^unbert  unb  ein(^),  -|-  a  hun- 
dred and  one 

(ein)  ^unbert  unb  jttjet,  +  a  hun- 
dred and  two 

(ein)  ^unbert  (unb)  ge|n,  +  a 
hundred  and  ten 


22  NUMERALS.  [78- 

(ctn)  ^unfcert  unb  gwanjtg,  +  a  hundred  and  twenty 

(ein)  buntert  ein  unt  Jiranjig,  +  a  hundred  and  twenty-one 

(ein)  lunbert  ac^t  unt)  a(^t5tg,  -f-  a  hundred  and  eighty-eight 

gmei^untert,  +  two  hundred 

t)reit)untert  fec^^5  unD  jteBjig,  +  three  hundred  and  seventy-six 

taufent  (t>a^  3;aufenb),  -f  a  thousand 

(ein)  taufent  unb  ein(0),  +  a  thousand  and  one  " 

(ein)  taufent  brei  unb  t^ierjig,  -f  a  thousand  and  forty-three 

(ein)  tan\mi)  ein^unbert  or  elf^unbert,  -f  a  thousand  and  one 

hundred 
ein  taufenb  acbtbunbert  brci  unb  ac^t^ig  or  adjtje^n  l^unbcrt  brei  unb 

ac^tjig,  -f  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-three 
brei(mal)  ^unbert  taufenb,  +  three  hundred  thousand 
eine  '^iUio'n,  -f  a  million 
cine  Sjflillia'rbe,  a  thousand  millions 
eine  53ittio'tt,  -\-  a  billion 

78.  Inflection. 

Fully  inflected  are  only  ein^,  jmet,  brei,  as  follows  : 

Masc.  Pem.  Neuter. 

N.  finer  eine  ein(e)2i 

Gr.  eine^  einer  eineg,  when  used  substantively. 

N.  ein  tint  tin,    like   the    indefinite    article 

when  used  attributively. 

„H  njar  einer  bem^^  ju  Jperjen  ging"  (Ch.)  ;  „ein5  ijon  hiten,"  one 
of  two  things. 


N.  gwei 

G.  smeier 

D.  jweien 

A.'  3»ei 

N.  brei 

G.  breier 

D.  breien 

A.  brei 

79.  Older  inflections  were  masc  itt>ecn,  fem.  \\v>o,  2^^n.  the  neuter, 
lias  crowded  out  the  masculine  and  feminine  forms,  which  may  still 
be  found  in  the  older  modern  classics,  and  still  in  use  in  the  S.  G. 
dialects.  Sa^  jtueien  rcd^t  t|l,  ifl  brcicn  ju  enc|c.  2)urc^  jweier  Beugen  ?Wunb 
tijirb  aUixmn^  bie  SBa^r^cit  funb  (F.,  I.  3013).    3n>een,bic  mil  mir  itberfu^rcn 


81] 


PRONOUNS. 


23 


♦  .  .  .  (Uh.).  3»o  ^ofen  eine<J  Xuc^^,  cut  from  the  same  cloth.  „3wo 
Sungfern  in  ben  bejlen  Sal^rcn"  (Gellert).  The  plurals  jweie  and  breie  are  ia 
analogy  with  the  strong  noun  and  adjective  declensions  From  4-12 
the  e  in  the  plural  represents  O.  H.  G.  i  when  they  were  ^-stems,  funfe  < 
jimfi.  The  only  other  case  in  which  these  numbers  are  inflected  is  the 
dative  plural  (in  -en):  auf  atten  SSicren  friec^en,  aUe  25ierc  »on  ftc^  jlredfen;  ntit 
©ec^fen  fa^ren;  ju  £)reien.  Bi»eier,  iWeteit  are  according  to  the  adjective 
inflection. 

80.  Ordinals. 

The  ordinals  are  formed  from  the  cardinals  by  adding  -te 
to  the  numbers  from  2-19,  and  -fte  from  20  on. 

(ler)  erfie,  +  first  fec^lle,  +  sixth 

gjueite,  4-  second  ff'C^^e^nte,  +  sixteenth 

tritte,  -f  third  ^njanjig^e,  +  twentieth 

»ierte,  +  fourth  ^untertfte,  +  hundredth 

fiinfte,  +  fifth  taufenifte,  +  thousandth 

Their  inflection  is  that  of  adjectives ;  gmeiter,  ter  jttjeite,  ein 
gnjeiter;  G.  eine^  a^eiten.     See  438,  1. 


PRONOUNS. 

81.  Personal  Pronouns. 

Special 

forms  for  gender  in  the 

Common  gender 

singular. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

III. 

Reflexive. 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neuter. 

Sing.  N.  i^ 

U 

er 

lie 

ti 

G.  nteiner 

beiner 

feiner 

feiner 

i^rer 

feiner 

(mein) 

(bein) 

(fein) 

(fein) 

(fein,  e^) 

D.  mir 

tir 

M 

m 

i^r 

i^m 

A.  mic^ 

M 

m 

fie 

e^ 

Plu.  N.  njir 

fie 

G.  unfer 

euer 

i^ter 

(unfrer) 

(enter) 

D.  ung 

en^ 

fic^ 

i^tten 

A.  und 

cuc^ 

fid) 

Pe 

24  PRONOUNS.  [82- 

The  first  and  second  persons  and  the  plural  of  the  third 
person  are  of  common  gendfr.  The  singular  of  the  third 
person  has  a  form  for  each  ge  ader. 

82.  In  the  genitive  singular  the  longer  forms  in  -er  are 
common;  the  others  are  now  archaic  and  poetic,  e.g.,  „35ergt§^ 
meinni^t"  (the  flower).  „3(fc  tenfe  Xein,"  etc.  (G.).  The  length- 
ened forms  eurer,  unfrer  are  not  yet  sanctioned,  though  common 
in  the  spoken  language,  and,  especially  eurer,  not  very  rare  in 
the  classics,  e.  g.,  „(^k  er)  bei  3:afcl  Surer  felbft  ni&jt  a^tet"  (Sch.). 
„Tann  BeDarf  e^  unferer  ttidjt,,  (Sch.).  Tne  genitive  singular  neu- 
ter „t^"  occurs  still  in  certain  constructions,  generally  called 
an  accusative:  „Sr  ^at  eg  !einen  ^tU  ta§  .  .  .  ."  (Sch.).  3c^  Hn 
eg  mute*   gg  nimmt  mic^  SCunter.     (See  183,  199,  2.) 

83.  Eeflexive  Pronouns. 

For  the  first  and  second  persons  the  personal  pronouns 
serve  as  such,  e.  g.,  i&i  fiirdste  mid),  n?ir  freuen  ung,  ibr  f(^eut  eu(^. 
For  the  third  person  the  forms  are  made  up  of  the  personal 
and  the  old  reflexive  pronouns  : 

MaBC.  and  neuter.       Pern.  Common  gender. 

Sing.  G.  feiner      (iker,  pers.  pron.)      Plu.  (ibrer,  pers.  pron. ) 
D.,  A.  ftd^         M  P* 

84.  The  reciprocal  pronoun  has  no  special  form ;  as  such 
are  used  ung,  euc^,  |ic^,  einanter,  meaning  "each  other,"  "one 
another."    Ex.:  3^r  (cblagt  eud).     2l?ir  fcbelten  einanter  nic^t. 

The  Possessive  Pronouns. 

85.  The  possessive  pronouns  are:  meitt  +  my;  tein  -f  thy; 
fein,his,  its;  i^r,  her;  unfer  -f-  our;  euer  +  your;  i^r,  their;  3^^ 
your ;  tier  meine  +  mine  ;  ter  teine  +  thine,  etc. ;  tax  meintge  + 
mine;  ter  teinige  +  thine,  etc. 

They  are  inflected  Uke  adjectives  (see  69)  ;  but  metn,  bein, 


87]  PRONOUNS.  25 

feiri,  unfer,  euer,  it)r,  like  the  indefinite  article  (see  38),  in  which 
the  nominative  singular  masculine  and  the  nominative  and  ac- 
cusative singular  neuter  are  uninflected,  e.  g.  : 

Neuter.  Feminine. 

Sing.  N.,  A.  mein  Zn6^  beine  9^id?tc 

G.  mctne^  2:ud^e0  beiner  3liAitt 

T>.  meinem  2:uc^c  fceiner  9lid)te 

Plu.  N.,  A.  meinc  Zii6>tx  beine  5^i(fctert 

G-.  meiner  Zix6^cv  teiner  5flic^ten 

D.  meinen  ^iic^ern  beinen  9li^ten 

For  the  declension  of  ter  meine,  ber  meinige,  see  the  weak 
adjective,  69,  2.  The  rest  stand  uninflected  used  predica- 
tively  and  when  they  follow  the  noun  (now  archaic),  e.  g., 
SCae  metn  ift,  ba^  ift  beitt  unb  toa^  Uin  ift,  ba^  ift  mein  (B.).  Xu 
laft  la^  iperge  mein  fo  ganj  genommen  ein  (Song). 

86.  Gucr,  Sure,  ©eincr,  ©eine  are  often  abbreviated  into  (Sw.,  ©r.,  ©e. :  ©c.  aWajeftat, 
6tt5.  aBo^Igefeoren.  S^ro  is  archaic,  e.  g.,  ^^xo  ©nabcn.  It  is  an  imitation  of  the  old 
G.  bero  (see  89).  It  does  not  occur  before  the  seventeenth  century.  It  stands  for  mas- 
culine and  feminine  sing,  and  pi.  in  titles:  3|ro  ©nabetl,  ®minen§,  2)urc^laud^t. 

87.  The  possessive  pronouns  form  certain  compounds  with  ttjcgen^ 
f)alhtn,  mUtn,  and  glei^en.  Ex. :  meinetwcgen,  i^retroegen,  meinetl^alben,  i^re^^^ 
glei^en,  eureiggleic^en.  The  compounds  with  ttJegcn  and  ^alkn  are  really 
D.  plu.  meinen  tuegen,  beinen  ^alben.  After  n  sprang  up  the  excrescent  t  — 
metnentwegen,  beinent^alkn,  current  in  the  sixteenth  century.  These  became 
the  now  classical  metnetttjegen/  beinet^alben,  though  the  longest  forms  are 
still  heard ;  also  meintfalkn,  even  meint^^alben/  occur,  but  they  are  not 
good.  3)Zeinetn)itten  <  meinentwillen  <  metnenwillen  are  original  accusatives, 
e,  g.,  urn  meinen  wiffen  =  for  my  sake. 

The  origin  of  i&re!^gleid)enr  etc.,  is  not  so  clear.  ®Iei(^en  is  without 
doubt  the  adjective  used  as  a  noun  and  governing  a  preceding  genitive, 
which  was  at  first  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronoun  and  became  later 
the  possessive  pronoun  agreeing  with  glei^en  (M.  H.  G.  dne  gelichen). 
But  whence  ^  ?  Is  it  the  genitive  sign  -e^  in  compound  nouns,  Siebe^^* 
Brief,  ?0?ittag!3tlunbc/  which  was  looked  upon  as  a  mere  connective  ?  (See 
518, 3.)    In  M.  H.  G.  was  a  Gen.  mines,  dines,  which  with  rmiier,  stood  for 


26  PEONOUNS.  [88- 

min,  almost  exclusively  before  selbes.   But  beincgglei(^en  is  not  old  enough 
to  connect  with  M.  H.  G.  dines  selbes. 

Other  compounds  with  the  possessive,  like  meine^teil^,  nteinerfcit^  (see 
552),  are  clearly  genitives. 

Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

88.  These  are  :  1.  ter,  tie,  tai  +  the,  that ;  2.  ttefcr,  bicfc, 
ticfe^  -f-  this ;  jener,  jene,  jene^,  that,  +  yon.  The  first,  when 
used  with  the  noun,  differs  only  in  accent  and  not  in  declen- 
sion from  the  article  (see  39).  When  used  substantively 
(without  the  noun)  it  dechnes : 


Masc. 

Fem. 

Neuter. 

1 

Common  gender. 

N. 

ter 

tie 

ta^ 

Flu, 

.  tie 

G. 

tejfen 

teren 

tejfen 

teren 

M 

ter 

te^ 

terer  (ter) 

D. 

tern 

ter 

tern 

tenen 

A. 

Den 

tie 

t)ai 

tie 

89.  The  spelling  of  wbep"  for  wbc^"  is  unwarranted.  It  implies  that 
it  is  an  abbreviation  of  wbc|Ten,"  which  it  is  n(  t, 

#»2)ero"  is  the  O.  H.  G.  form  retained  in  certain  phrases,  as  in  bero 
Onaben.  !I)crem»e9en,  4<Jl^en,  etc.,  are  forms  like  meinctwcaen,  etc.,  but 
rarely  lose  the  n  before  t.     For  their  explanation  see  87. 

Masc.  Pern.  Neuter. 

90.  tiefer  tiefe  tiefe^  and  tie^  +  this 
Jener            jene  jene^  +  yon,  that 

These  are  dechned  like  strong  adjectives,  and  stand  adjec- 
tively  and  substantively:  tiefe  geter,  tiefer  2:intenfa§,  jener  33aum. 
3ene5  tort  ift  mein  53uc^. 

91  Another  group  of  demonstrative  pronouns,  sometimes 
called  "  determinative,"  consists  of  : 

Masc,  Fem.  Neuter. 


terjenigc 

tiejenige 

tai<jenige,  the,  that 

terfelbe 

tiefelbe 

ta^felbe,  the  same 

terfelbige 

tiefelbige 

ta^felbige,  the  same 

felber,  felbjl  (uninflected),  felbiger 

felbigc 

felbige^,  the  same 

fold)(er) 

W(e) 

foI(^(e5),  +  such 

92]  PRONOUNS.  27 

1.  The  inflection  of  the  first  three  is  that  of  „tcr"  and  a 
weak  adjective,  e.  g.,  berjenige,  tcgjentgen,  Jentienigen,  etc.  Their 
composition  is  apparent,  -ig  is  the  usual  adjective  suffix  (see 
525,  1). 

In  the  16th  century  bcr  is  still  separated  from  feIf>-»  jcn-,  and  earlier 
the  latter  were  even  declined  strong,  ber  jener,  bent  felbcnt,  but  they  soon 
followed  the  n  declension,  ,,'hzx  icnc,"  from  which  wbcrjenige"  developed, 
becomes  obsolete  in  the  17th  century.  ^IDerfelMge"  <  »berfelbe.".  Accent : 
be'rjentgc,  but  berfe'Ibc. 

2.  <£clber  is  a  stereotyped  form  like  »oUcr,  and  felbfl  is  a  geni- 
tive singular  of  feI6,  M.  H.  G.  selhes.  The  excrescent  t  appears 
first  in  the  13  th  century. 

3.  @oI(i^  is  inflected  like  any  adjective,  even  with  -en  in  the 
genitive  singular,  e.g.,  foI(^enfaU^,  fol^en  ©laubcn^.  It  may  be 
uninflected,  always  if  followed  by  ein  and  generally  if  followed 
by  another  adjective.  An  apostrophe  after  foldj  is  uncalled 
for.  8oId)  eiit  9Rann,  fold)  |d)bne  33Iumen.  Sine  foldje  33eIeiDigung 
fann  icfe  nic^t  ijergeffen.    2ll5  er  foI(^e^  fa|  .  .  »  .  (B.). 

92.  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

ffier  +  who ;  mag  -f  what ;  melc^er  +  which  ;  tt>ajJ  fiir  tin, 
what  sort  of. 

1.  2Der  declines : 

Masc.  and  fern.  Neuter. 

N.  mer  toai 

G.  meffen,  xoti  wejfen,  xoti 

D.  mem  - — 

A.  mn 


2Be^  or  wef^t  rot^  as  beffen  t  beg.  See  89.  The  genitive  lengthened 
by  -en  like  beS  >  beffen  was  not  yet  established  in  the  16th  century. 
S3eg  is  now  archaic,  except  in  compounds,  e.  ^.,  roe^l^alb,  iDe^wegen.  For 
i»c|Tent|aIkn,  see  beJTent-,  berent^ai:6en,  87,  89. 

2.  S3el(^  +  which,  what,  declines  strong.     Before  „ein''  it  is 


28  PROKOUNS.  [93- 

always,  and  before  an  adjective  it  is  often  left  uninflected, 
also  in  poetry  when  used  adjectively:  2Be(d)  ®etummel  (Strafen 
auf !  (Sch.).    mi&i  eitt  (Siefii^l  (F.  1011).     mi&iix  munn  mx  ea  ? 

3.  Sag  fiir,  toni  fiir  ein,  what,  what  kind  of.  „(Ein"  alone  is 
inflected  lilse  the  indefinite  article  if  used  adjectively;  like  a 
strong  adjective  if  used  substantively:  „2Cag  fiir  33erge,  wag  fiir 
SSiiften  .  .  ,  ,  trennen  ung  tenn  nod)?"  (Le.).  3Bag  fiir  ein  Saum 
ijl  tag  ?    2Bag  fiir  2)inte  tp  tieg  ? 

93.  Relative  Pronouns. 

1.  ^er,  lit,  tag,  which,  +  that,  who,  decHnes  like  the  demon- 
strative, but  the  genitive  plural  is  never  terer  ;  Reiner  fiegtc  no^, 
ter  nic^t  gejlritten  ^at  (Bo.). 

2.  SBelAer,  n?elc^e,  tvel^eg,  -\-  which,  who,  that,  always  declines 
strong:  !Dag  53uc^,  mel(^eg  i(^  gelefen  babe. 

3.  SSer,  +  who,  whoever.  The  inflection  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  interrogative:  3Ber  eg  (au(^)  fei,  whoever  it  be. 

4.  2Bag,  +  what,  whatsoever.  The  inflection  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  interrogative  :  ^ai  er  (au(^)  fagen  mag,  no  matter 
what  he  says. 

Indefinite  Pronouns  and  Indefinite  H'umerals. 

94.  Slntercr,  antere,  antereg,  +  other,  different :  ter  antere, 
bie  antere,  tag  antere,  tic  anteren.  Declined  like  any  adjective, 
used  substantively  and  adjectively. 

95.  (Einer,  eine,  eineg,  +  one,  the  numeral  with  its  deriva- 
tives !ein,  none,  and  einigc,  generally  only  plural  "  some." 

Sin-  is  always  strongly  inflected  and  stands  only  substan- 
tively. Standing  adjectively  it  is  decUned  like  the  indefinite 
article  (see  39).     With  del  art.:  ter  eine, tie  etnen. 

^ein  is  inflected  like  the  indefinite  article,  but  standing 
substantively  is  declined  feiner,  feine,  fein(e)g  :  Reiner  wirt  alg 
S'Jeijler  ge&oren  (Pro v.). 


99]  PRONOUNS.  29 

96.  (Etlic^-  some  ;  etwa^,  anything  ;  mx,  anybody  ;  tva^,  any- 
thing, something ;  n?el(^-  some,  any ;  einig-  some. 

(StU^-  and  meld)-  are  always  inflected  strong.  The  singular 
of  etlic^  is  rare,  having  the  force  of  "tolerable,"  "some":  mit 
etUdjem  (Erfolge,  with  some  success. 

97.  Compounds  with  je:  jeter,  every,  each;  jeglid),  jctmeter 
(=  je^er)  stand  adjectively  and  substantively;  jetermann,  every- 
body: jemant,  anybody;  nieman^,  nobody. 

3e^er,  jcgtid^-,  jec meter,  each,  every,  are  dechned  hke  strong 
adjectives.  S^^ttc^  and  ietttJeter  are  not  common  now  ;  they 
have  the  same  meaning.  3f^^ritt<iiitt  has  only  a  genitive  singu- 
lar in  -^.  3emant)  and  niemanti  decline  :  N.  jemant',  G.  ienianb(e)^, 
D.  j[emant)em,  -ben,  A.  jemanten. 

If  jeber,  jeglid),  jebtveber  are  preceded  by  the  indef.  art.,  they 
are  declined  like  an}'  adjective  preceded  b}'  ein,  e.  g.  ein  Jeter, 
eineiJ  leben,  eiuem  jeben,  timn  jeben. 

The  accusative  and  dative  are  N.  H.  G.,  taken  from  the 
adjective  inflection.  Though  the  classics  are  full  of  these 
cases,  the  best  usage  for  the  spoken  language  favors  no  case- 
ending  for  accusative  and  dative. 

98.  Sfflan,  one,  any  one.  It  is  only  nominative.  The  other 
cases  are  made  up  from  ein-  or  ttjir.  SJlan  is  old  spelling  for 
3)^ann,  from  which  in  M.  H.  G.  it  was  not  distinguished.  Its 
corresponding  possessive  is  fein  :  'Man  glau&t  i^m  ni(^t.  'Man 
fann  (einen  eigenen  ^o)jf  nid^t  ejfen  (Prov.). 

99.  5^id5t5,  nothing,  allows  of  no  further  inflection.  It  is 
itself  the  genitive  of  M.  H.  G.  niht  =  ni-mht  and  nio-imht. 
Compare  Eng.  naught  =  na-wiht.  ^lidjt^,  the  genitive, 
stands  for  the  emphatic  combination  nihtes  niht,  "not  a 
thing"  =  gar  nidjt^. 

3u  nid)te,  mit  ntd^ten,  "  not  at  all,"  show  still  that  nid)t  was 
once  a  noun  fully  inflected:  ^Sejfer  etma^  tenn  nidjt^  (Prov.). 


30  CONJUGATION. 


[100' 


100.  As  indefinite  numerals  it  is  customary  to  classify 
all  +  all;  beitic  -|-  both;  bei^eg  +  each  or  either;  ganj,  whole; 
lauter,  "  nothing  but; "  manc^  +  many;  me:^r  +  more;  me^rere, 
several;  tie  meiften  +  most,  the  majority;  tie  me^rften  (=  tie 
meiften) ;  ein  paar,  a  few,  Ht.  "  a  pair; "'  famtlid^e,  all,  altogether; 
ta^  iibrige,  tie  u6rigen,  the  rest;  »iel,  much,  many;  menig,  Httle, 
few  ;  ein  wenig,  a  little  ;  genug  +  enough. 

Of  these,  alt,  gan^,  niancfc,  »iel,  ivenig  may  stand  uninflected. 
Otherwise  they  are  inflected  like  adjectives :  ^iel  (2tcinc  QaV^ 
unt  mnxQ  53rot  (Uh.).  (3ani  2)eutfc^lant  lag  in  (5d)nia^  unt 
©camera  (Mosen).     3)ag  ganje  £)eutfc^(ant  foil  e^  fein  (Arndt). 

tauter,  me^r,  ein  paar,  ein  tvenig,  genug  are  indeclinable. 

CONJUGATION. 

101.  The  verb  varies  for  person  and  number;  for  tense 
(present  and  preterit)  and  mood  (indicative  and  subjunctive). 
From  the  present  stem  are  formed  the  imperative  and  the 
noun-forms  of  the  verb,  viz.,  the  infinitive,  present  participle 
with  the  gerundive,  and  the  past  participle  in  -(c)t.  Accord- 
ing to  the  formation  of  the  preterit  we  distinguish  two  great 
systems  of  conjugations,  the  "  strong  *  and  the  "  weak."  The 
strong  verbs  form  the  preterit  by  substituting  a  different  stem- 
vowel  from  that  of  the  present,  e.  g.,  geben  —  gab,  tragen —  trug ; 
the  weak,  by  adding  -(e)te  to  the  stem,  e.  g.,  loben  —  lobte, 
glauben  —  glaubte. 

102.  The  infinitive,  the  preterit,  and  the  past  participle 
are  generally  given  as  the  "  principal  parts  "  of  a  verb.  The 
infinitive  represents  the  forms  with  the  present  stem.  Know- 
ing the  preterit  or  the  past  participle,  one  can  tell  whether  a 
verb  is  weak  or  strong.  If  the  preterit  ends  in  -(e)te  the  past 
participle  ends  in  ~(e)t ;  if  the  preterit  is  strong,  the  past  par- 
ticiple ends  in  -en,  e.  g.,  [agen,  (agte,  gefagt;  [augen,  fog,  gefogen. 


105] 


CONJUGATION. 


31 


The  infinitive  and  the  past  participle  help  form  the  compound 
tenses. 

103.    The  following  paradigms  show  the  various  inflections: 


WEAK. 

STRONG. 

PBESENT. 

PRETERIT. 

PRESENT. 

PRETERIT. 

Ind. 

Subj.    Ind.  andstii^. 

Ind. 

Subj. 

Ind.         Subj. 

ic^  lobe 

lobe 

lobte 

fmge 

finge 

fang        fange 

bu  lobft 

lobefl 

lobtefi 

ftngfl 

ftngefl 

fangft      fangeft 

er  lobt 

lobe 

lobte 

ftngt 

ftnge 

fang        fange 

ttjir  lobcn     loben 

lobten 

ftngen 

ftngen 

fangen     fdngen 

i^r  lobt 

lobet 

lobtet 

ftngt 

ftnget 

fangt       fdnget 

fte  loben 

loben 

lobten 

ftngen 

ftngen 

fangen     fdngen 

Imp. 

Inf. 

Imp. 

Inf. 

2.sg. 

lobe  (tu) 

loben 

%sg. 

ftng(e)  (Du)      ftngen. 

l.pL 

loben  »ir 

Pres.paH., 

.    l.pl. 

ftngen  wii 

•          Pres.  part., 

2.  pi.  { 

Iob(e)t  (m) 
loben  @ie 

• 

Oerundive. 
lobenD 

PaM  part. 

2.  pi. 

(  c     /  \x  /•<:  \      Gerundive. 

gelobt 

gefungen 

104.  The  personal  suffixes  are: 

Sg.  1.  p.  -e,  except  for  strong  preterit. 

2.  p.  -(e) ft  for  both  tenses  and  moods. 

3.  p.  -(e)t  for  the  present  indicative.     In  the  pres.  subj. 

and  in  the  pret.  ind.  and  subj.  the  3.  p.  is  like 
the  first. 
PI.  1.  p.  -(e)n  for  both  tenses  and  moods. 

2.  p.  -(e)t  for  both  tenses  and  moods ;  also  for  the  im- 

perative. 

3.  p.  -(e)n  for  both  tenses  and  moods. 

The  retention  or  rejection  of  the  thematic  or  connecting  vowe]  -e-  is  treated  later. 
See  118. 

105.  Imperative.     The  2.  p.  sg.  ends  in  -e  in  all  verbs 
excepting  those  strong  on3s   that  have  the  interchange   of 


32  CONJUGATION.  [106- 

c — i  or  e — te  in  the  2.  and  3.  p.  sg.  pres.  ind.,  e.  g.,  Zxam,  \6>.(!L\xt, 
&ete,  Htte,  grabe,  ^ebe,  but  fprids,  fri§,  nimm. 

106.  Infinitive.  It  always  ends  in  -en  except  in  those 
weak  verbs  in  which  it  is  preceded  by  -cl,  -er  :  ivantein, 
twantern  ;  also  in  fein,  t^un,  which  are  non-thematic  verbs. 
See  449,  2. 

107.  Participles.  The  present  part,  and  the  gerundive 
always  end  in  -ent:  ^ojfenb,  ^elfent,  ein  Siebenter,  ein  ^u  kmetfcnrer 
©a^,  a  proposition  to  be  demonstrated.  They  are  dechned 
like  adjectives. 

The  past  participle  is  formed  by  the  prefix  ge-,  and  the  suf- 
fix -(c)t  for  weak  verbs,  the  suffix  -en  for  strong  ones:  licbcn  — 
geliett,  Hattern  —  geMcittert,  tragcn  —  gctragen,  fingen  —  gefungcn. 

108.  ®c-  does  not  stand: 

1.  Before  ^eifen,  lajfen,  fe^en,  ^clfen,  lernen  (?),  lekcn  (?),  ^cren, 
when  an  infinitive  depends  upon  them  in  a  compound  tense: 
3d)  i^abe  i^n  ge^^en  ^eifen,  fommen  lajjen,  fagen  ^bren.  For  lernen 
and  le^ren,  gelernt  and  gelebrt  are  better  usage. 

2.  In  the  preterit-present  verbs  (=  modal  auxiliaries,  see 
134)  which  form  similar  past  participles,  viz.,  !bnnen,  tiirfen, 
mbgen,  miijfen,  foflen,  trotlen.  Wi^xi  ^at  ta^  milre  3:ier  nicbt  fangen 
fbnnen.    See  113. 

3.  In  the  past  participles  of  verbs  having  inseparable  pre- 
fixes, e.  g.,  ijerlajfen,  entfagt,  betedt,  getadjt,  except  frejyen  <  'on  + 
ejfcn  and  verbs  in  which  h  and  g  are  no  longer  felt  to  be  the 
prefixes  be  and  gc  (see  543),  e.^.,  gefreffen,  gcblicbcn  <  bleiben, 
geglaubt;  geglic^en  <  glei^en.     See  gegejycn,  128. 

4.  In  verbs  with  the  foreign  ending  -i'cren,  e.  g.,  marfdneren  — 
marfd^iert  ;  probieren  —  ))robiert.  Even  when  these  are  com- 
pounded with  separable  Germanic  prefixes,  they  take  no  ge-  : 
au^marfc^iert,  einftulicrt. 

5.  5Borten  <  njerten  never  takes  gc-,  when  it  is  an  auxihary 
in  the  passive  voice,  e.  g.,  Sr  ift  gelobt  ivorten. 


Ill] 


CONJUGATION". 


33 


Compound  Tenses. 

109.  These  are  formed  by  means  of  the  auxiliary  verbs 
l^afeen,  [ein,  merten ;  the  last  in  the  future  active  and  the  whole 
passive;  |aben  and  fein  in  the  active  voice.  As  a  matter  of  con- 
venience the  simple  tenses  of  these  auxiliaries  are  given  here. 

110. 


PRESENT. 


Ind. 

tu  ^aft 
er  ^at 
njir  t)aBett 

fte  1ijC(btX{ 


Subj. 

^abeft 
^abet 


Imperative. 
2.  sg.    MU  (in) 
1.  pi.    ^aben  text 

2     ,i^abet(iW 
(  ^aUn  (Bie 


PRESENT. 

Ind.  Svhj. 

t(^  n?erte  werte 

tu  trirft  merbeft 

er  tDtrb  irerbe 

n?ir  merten  merten 

i^r  njerbet  n?ertct 

jtc  njerten  werten 


PRETERIT. 

^attc  ptte 

^atteft  t)atteft 

^atte  l)atte 

fatten  fatten 

lattet  ^attet 

fatten  fatten 

Inf. 

Pres.  part., 

gerund. 

^abenl) 

Past  part. 

ge^abt 

PRETERIT. 

Ind. 

njart,  wurbe 
tvartft,  irurbefl 
n?art,  luurfcc 
murten 
murtet 
tt)urten 


PRESENT. 

Ind.  Subj. 

Un  fei 

H\t  fciefl 

tft  fei 

finD  feten 

feit  fetet 

fine  feten 

Imperative. 
2.sg.    fei  (tu) 
1.  pL    feten  njir 

2,pl.  \  ^'''  (^^') 
(  jeten  ©ie 


PRETERIT. 


Ind. 

ttjar 

trarfl 

war 

traren 

waret 

ivaren 


Subj. 

n?dre 

jrdrefl 

trdre 

tx>dren 

wdret 

n?dren 


Inf. 
fein 

Pres.  part. 
feient 

Past  part. 
gen?efen 


Subj. 
miirte 
njiirtefl 
ttjurte 
hJiirben 
ttJiirtet 
njiirten 


Imperative. 
2.  sg.    tt^erbe  (tu) 

1.  pL    n?erten  irir 

2.  pi.  I^^^^^^^OW 

*  1  werten  'Bu 
Inf.  merten 

Pres.  part.  I  ^^^^^^^ 
Gerund.    \  ^^^^^^^ 

Past  part,      tvorteu 


111.  1.  ^aben  has  contracted  forms  for  tlie  2.  and  3.  pers.  sing.:  ^ajl 
<  hast  <  habest ;  f^at  <  hat  <  habet.  The  pret.  has  undergone  the  same 
contractions  :  ^tte  <  hate  <  habete,  etc.  The  pret.  subj.  has  umlaut  due 
to  the  influence  of  strong  and  pret.-pres.  verbs.    In  dialect  the  old  con- 


34  CONTUGATION.  [112- 

tracted  forms  with  a,  prevailing  through  the  whole  present,  are  still 
heard.  In  M.  H.  G.  haben  as  auxiliary  has  the  contracted  forms  ;  as  an 
independent  verb,  the  uncontracted. 

2.  SBerben  is  a  regular  strong  verb  of  the  3.  class.  It  is  the  only  verb 
that  has  retained  the  two  pret.  vowels,  generally  the  vowel  of  the  sing, 
prevailing  over  that  of  the  plural,  ©art  is  more  common  as  independent 
verb  ;  wurbc,  as  auxiliary.     In  elevated  style  warb  is  preferable. 

112.  The  Perfect  is  formed  with  the  present  of  t^aben  or  fein 
and  the  past  participle,  e.  g.,  iA  ^ak  getragen,  I  have  borne;  ic^ 
bin  ijefabren,  subj.  id?  fei  gcfa^ren,  I  have  ridden.  Perfect  Infini- 
tive: getragen  \>\\btn,  gcfa^ren  fein,  to  have  carried,  ridden. 

The  Pluperfect  is  formed  with  the  preterit  of  baben  or  fein :  idj 
^atte  getragen,  subj.  ic^  ^atte  getragen,Ihad  borne;  icfc  mar  gefat^ren, 
subj.  ic^  mare  gefa^ren,  I  had  ridden. 

113.  The  past  participles  without  ge-  accompanied  by  an  infinitive 
(see  108,  1,  2),  the  madal  auxiliaries  and  weak  verbs  which  followed 
their  analogy,  form  such  tenses  as  these  :  '^si)  |abc  i^n  ge'ben  ^et§en,  I  have 
ordered  him  to  leave,  ©te  faben  cincn  9?odf  niacben  laffen,  you  have  had  a 
coat  made  or  ordered  a  coat  to  be  made.  2)cr  ^nabe  ^at  bie  Seftion  nid)t 
Icrncn  fonncn,  the  boy  has  not  been  able  to  learn  the  lesson.  (£r  bat  e^  nut 
fagen  l^orcn,  he  has  only  heard  it  said,  '^zx  S^ad^bar  ^t  ben  93ettler  arretieren 
laflen  tuoHen  (or  rotten  arretieren  laiJen),  my  neighbor  wanted  to  have  the 
beggar  arrested. 

114.  The  Future  ind.  and  subj.  is  formed  with  the  present 
of  werlen  and  the  infinitive,  e,  g.,  i(^  merfce  tragen,  tc^  merte  fabren, 
I  shall  carry,  ride. 

The  Future  Perfect  is  formed  with  the  present  of  merten  and 
the  perfect  infinitive,  e.  g.,  \6>  irerte  getragen  ^aben,  id)  merte 
gefa^ren  fein,  I  shall  have  carried,  ridden. 

115.  The  first  Conditional  is  formed  with  the  preterit 
subj.  of  n?erten  and  the  infinitive,  e,  g.,  ic^  wiirte  tragen  or 
fa^ren,  I  should  carry  or  ride. 

The  second  or  perfect  Conditional  is  formed  with  the  pre- 
terit subj.  of  merten  and  the  perfect  infinitive  :  id?  miirte  getragen 
baben  or  gefa^ren  fein,  I  should  have  carried  or  ridden. 


118] 


CONJUGATION.  85 


Passive  Voice. 


116.  The  passive  voice  is  formed  bv  werben  except  in  the 
imper.  The  tense  of  the  auxiliary  with  the  past  participle 
of  the  verb  forms  the  corresponding  passive  tense.  SBerten 
forms  its  compound  tenses  with  fein  and  n?erren. 

Present  :  id)  mvlt  gelobt,  I  am  praised,  am  being  praised. 
Preterit  :  i^  toax^  or  n)urt»e  gclobt,  I  was  praised. 
Perfect  :  i&i  bin  gelobt  worten,  I  have  been  praised. 
Pluperfect  :  tc^  war  gelobt  worsen,  I  had  been  praised. 
Future  :  i&i  wer^e  gelobt  merten,  I  shall  be  praised. 
Future  perfect  :  id)  tuerte  gelobt  ivorien  fein,  I  shall  have  been 

praised. 

1.  Conditional  :  id)  miirl)e  gelobt  n?erben,I  should  be  praised. 

2.  or  Conditional  perfect  :    ic^  ttJiirte  gelobt  morten   fein,  1 

should  have  been  praised. 
Imperative  :  fei  (tn)  gelobt,  be  (thou)  praised, 
feit  m  geloM  |  ^^  ^       ^       .^^^_ 
feien  @ie  Qtioht ) 
Infinitive  :  geloBt  trerten,  to  be  praised. 

gelobt  worsen  fein,  to  have  been  praised. 

"Weak   Conjugation. 

117.  The  weak  conjugation  forms  the  principal  parts  by 
suffixing  -te  or  -ete  in  the  preterit:  loben,  lobtc,  rctten,  rettete;  by 
prefixing  ge-  and  suffixing  -t  or  -et  in  the  past  participle: 
gelobt,  gcrettet*  For  the  simple  tenses  see  103,  for  the  com- 
pound, 112-115. 

1.  Verbs  of  this  conjugation  are  with  few  exceptions  derivative  verbs,  and  most  of 
them  can  be  recognized  as  such  by  certain  marks  of  derivation,  such  as  suffixes  (-elii, 
-em,  -tgcn,  -ieren,  -jen,  -f^en)  or  umlaut.  (But  there  are  a  few  strong  verbs  with 
umlaut;  Ifigen.  trflgen,  gefcaren,  etc.). 

118.  1,  The  connecting  vowel  always  stands  before  t,  whether  per- 
sonal suffix  (3.  p.  s^.  and  2.  p  pi.)  or  in  the  participle  and  preterit,  if  the 
stem  ends  in  b  or  t  (t^) ;  if  the  stem  ends  in  m  and  n,  preceded  by  another 


36  CONJUGATION.  [119- 

consonant  which  is  not  m  or  n,  e.g.,  er  rebet,  ibr  melbet,  »ir  walteten,  getrojiet, 
er  atmete,  ii)  jei(|nete» 

Those  in  m  and  n  have  lost  an  c  before  these  consonants.  Compare  them  with  their 
nouns  :  Stem,  ^eic^en.  Those  in  n  are  often  treated  like  those  in  et,  er,  to  which  they 
really  belong  (see  sub  3) :  jetci^cute,  regente.    But  these  forms  are  not  elegant. 

2.  The  connecting  vowel  stands  in  the  2.  p.  sg.  present  ind.  also  after 
stems  in  f,  fct).  §,  ff,  it  ^,  besides  the  stem-endings  sub  \,  e.g.,  bii  rcbcjl, 
jwaltc)!,  fd)mad)te)1,  rc(^ne|l,  rcife|l,  ttfc^ejl,  fpa§e|l,  faffeft,  wibmeil,  beijc|l,  ftu^e)!. 

3.  Verbs  in  -eln  and  -cm  rarely  show  the  connecting  vowel  e,  e.  g.,  id^ 
^anbclte,  cr  ^anbelt,  gelac^elt,  wir  wanbcrten.  In  the  1.  p.  sg.  present  ind.  and 
subj.,  in  the  imperative  2.  p.  sg.  they  generally  lose  their  own  e,  e.g.y  ic^ 
wanblc,  wanbre,  [d^melc^Ie  (bu). 

4.  In  solemn  diction  and  in  poetry  any  verb  may  retain  the  connecting 
vowel.  Oa  the  other  hand,  the  poet  and  the  people  take  many  liberties 
in  the  omission  of  it  (sub  1  and  2).  For  instance,  Dad  ncue  ^auig  ift  aufgc^ 
xx&jVi  (Uh.).  @cib  mir  gegrupt,  kfreunb^tc  ©d)arcn !  (Sch.),  SReb^ilbu  »on  eincm 
bcr  ba  lebet?  (id.).  ®egrii§et  feib  mir,  eble^errn!  ©egriipt  i^r,  fd^one  Damcn 
(G.).  See  F.  3216,  3557.  In  fact  though  such  full  forms  as  bu  ftfd^e)!, 
rafcj!,  fctJTei^'  pu^eil,  etc.,  are  written,  one  generally  hears  bu  ftfc^t,  ra|l,  fapt, 
pu^t,  etc.     This  applies  also  to  strong  verbs,  e.  g.,  bu  tDcifc^t,  jlo§t,  rei|3t. 

5.  The  present  subj.  nearly  always  shows  full  forms,  but  the  preterit 
ind.  and  subj.  have  coincided  :  ba§  bu  licbefl,  i^r  liebet;  ba^  ic^  liebte,  rebete. 

Irregular   Weak  Verbs. 

119.  There  are  two  groups  of  these  verbs.  One  has  a  dif- 
ference of  vowel  which  looks  like  ablaut,  the  other  has  besides 
different  vowels  also  a  change  in  consonants. 

1.  The  stems  show  nn  or  nb: 


Inf. 

Pret.  ind. 

Subj. 

Past  participle. 

brennen 

brannte 

brcnnte 

gebrannt 

fenfcen 

fantte 

fentetc 

gefantt 

Here  belong  ^renncn,  +  bum  ;  fcnnen,  to  be  acquainted 
with,  +  ken;  nenncn,  +  name;  rcnnen,  +  run;  font  en,  -|-  send; 
njenten,  to  turn,  +  wend,  went.  The  last  two  have  also  a  pre- 
terit ind.  fcntete,  wen^ete. 


121J  C0ITJUGATI01<f.  37 

2.  The  stems  show  nf^  ng.     Here  belong : 


Inf. 

Pret,  ind. 

Subj. 

Past  participle. 

tenfen 

tad^te 

tad)te 

getad^t 

biinfen 

( teuc^te  (Daud)te) 

teu^te 

geteu(^t 

( tiinfte 

t)unfte 

geJiinft 

brtngen 

brac^te 

brad)te 

gebrac^t 

Strong   Conjugation. 

120.  Strong  verbs  must  have  different  stem- vowels  in  the 
preterit  and  present,  since  in  this  way  difference  of  tense  is 
expressed.  But  the  vowel  of  the  past  participle  may  coincide 
with  that  of  the  present,  as  in  Q(hn,  gab,  gegeben  v,  fa^ren,  fu^r, 
gefa^ren  vi,  ^alten,  l)ielt,  ge^alteit  vii;  or  with  that  of  the  preterit, 
as  in  bei§en,  M§,  gebiffeu  i,  Megen,  bog,  gebogen  n,  glimmen,  glomm, 
geglommen  vni.  The  past  participle  ends  in  -en,  and  has  the 
prefix  ge-,  e.  g.,  geftot)len,  gerufen.    For  simple  tenses  see  103. 

121.  The  personal  suffixes  are  the  same  as  in  weak  verbs. 
Compare  liebte,  liebteft,  Uet*te,  etc.;  fa^,  fa^ft,  \<x^,  etc.  The  imper- 
ative 2.  p.  sg.  has  no  ending  when  the  present  ind.  has  inter- 
change of  e-i,  ie,  e.  g.,  ic^  berge,  tu  birgft,  er  birgt ;  imp.  birg ;  bred?en 
— bridi ;  ejjen — i§.  This  interchange  of  e-i,  ie  occurs  in  iii  3, 
rv,  v;  in  verbs  which  do  not  have  it  there  is  no  difference  of 
stem- vowel  in  the  imperative  and  the  present,  e.  g.,  ^alten — 
l)alt  ;  f^tutmmen  —  f(^n?tmm*  But  often  e  is  added  in  analogy 
with  weak  verbs,  always  when  the  verb  is  either  strong  or 
weak,  e.g.,  rufen  —  rufe  vii ;  fd?(agen  —  fc^lage  vi ;  always  webe, 
ben?ege,  ertudge  vni.  In  the  last  group  there  is  of  course  no 
interchange  of  e-i,  e.  g,,  tu  betregft,  er  benjegt.  When  the  stem 
ends  in  t,  -tet  in  the  3.  p.  sg.  is  contracted  to  single  t,  if  the 
stem-vowel  changes.  M.  H.  G.  giltet  >  giUH  >  gilt.  K  g., 
gelten  —  er  gilt;  fed^ten — er  fid)t;  rateu,  rdt;  but  reitet,  [d^neiret. 
Special  mention  is  made  of  these  peculiarities  under  each 
class  and  verb.     The  preterit  subj.  always  has  umlaut  and 


38  CONJUGATION.  [122- 

the  1.  and  3.  p.  sg.  end  in  e,  e.  g.,  id)  fa^,  bu  fa^jl,  er  fa^,  etc.; 
but  \&!  fdbe,  tu  fabeft,  er  fdt)e. 

The  verbs  are  best  classified  according  to  the  ablaut- series. 
(See  393.) 

122.    I.  Class.    Ablaut :    ci  i,  ie  t,  ie. 

1.  Division  :    ei  i  t. 

The  stem  ends  in  §  (jf),  f,  6^,  t,  t-t. 

Examples:  Kn§en,  6i§,  geMjfen ;  fcfoletfen,  fd^Itff,  gefd^Iiffen ;  fd^reiten, 
fcfcritt,  gefc^ritten ;  mi&jtn,  anc^,  geroic^en ;  leilcn,  litt,  gelitten. 

The  following  verbs  belong  here  :  bei^en,  +  bite  ;  bki(^cn  (intrans.),  + 
bleach,  but  also  weak,  always  when  trans.;  fic^  beflei§cn,  to  apply  one's 
self;  gleid^cttf  to  be  +  like,  strong  since  the  17th  century,  in  the  sense  of 
+  liken  it  is  still  weak,  a  N.  H.  G.  distinction,  M.  H.  G.  only  weak ; 
glei^en,  +  glitter,  nothing  t)  do  with  the  rare  gleifen  <  gelihsen,  to 
deceive,  or  cntglcifen,  to  run  off  the  track  <  ®eleile,  track  ;  gleiten,  +  glide  ; 
grcifen,  to  seize,  +  gripe  ;  greinen,  +  grin,  rare  and  generally  weak,  grinfen, 
its  derivative,  has  taken  its  place ;  feifen,  to  quarrel,  is  strong  or  weak,  < 
L.  G. ;  fnetfen,  to  pinch,  L.  G.  >  N.  H.  G. ;  freifc^en  and  frci§en,  to  scream, 
are  related,  both  weak  and  strong,  not  H.  G. ;  leiben,  to  suffer,  +  loathe  ; 
pfetfen,  to  whistle,  +  pipe  <  L.  pipare ;  rei§en,  to  tear,  +  write,  draw ; 
reiten,  +  ride  on  horseback;  fd^Ietc^en,  to  sneak  (+  slick  and  sleek); 
fc^Ietfctt,  to  grind,  +  slip,  weak  in  the  sense  of  "  to  drag,  raze" ;  fd^letpen, 
+  slit,  split ;  f(^mei§cn,  +  smite,  throw  ;  fd^neiben,  to  cut ;  fc^reiten,  to  stride ; 
fplei§en,  +  split,  L.  and  M.  G. ;  )lreic&en,  to  wipe,  cross,  +  strike,  etc.,  with 
very  varying  meanings ;  flretten,  to  strive  ;  ttelc^en,  to  yield ;  compare 
midi,  +  weak,  wicker  ;  weak,  it  means  to  soak,  soften. 

2.  Division  :    ei  ie  ie. 

Examples :  gelei|en,  gette^,  gecie^en ;  reikn,  rieB,  gerieBeit. 

Here  belong :  Meiben,  to  remain  ( +  leave) ;  gcbei^en,  to  thrive,  the  part, 
has  a  doublet,  gebic^cn,  thriven,  gcbicgen,  solid,  pure ;  Itii^tn,  to  borrow,  + 
lend  ;  meiben,  to  avoid  ;  }3rcifen»  -f  to  praise,  strong  only  since  the  15th  cen- 
tury, <  9Jrei5  <  M.  H.  G.  pris  <  O.  Fr.  pris  <  L.  pretium,  analogous  to 
Fr.  priser;  rciben,  to  rub  (  +  rive) ;  fc&ciben,  to  separate  ;  fdbeincn,  +  shine: 
fi^reiOen,  to  write  (+  shrive);  fi^reien,  to  scream  (?) ;  f(^rocigem  to  be  silent, 
weak  in  the  sense  of  "to  still  a  child";  fpeicn,  to  spit,  +  spew;  flcigen^ 
to  climb;  treibcn,  +  to  drive;  roctfen,  to  point  out,  in  the  16th  century 
still  weak  ;  jei^en,  to  accuse  (  +  indict). 


125]  COKJUGATION".  39 

123.  Notice  the  interchange  of  b-t  in  the  first  division,  e.g.^  fc^neiben,  fc^nitt, 
gey(^nttten  ;  but  not  in  the  second,  viz.,  meiben,  mieb,  gemieben  ;  j^eiben,  fctjieb,  gej(^ieteu. 
(See  416.)  When  the  stem  ends  in  ^  or  j,  the  2.  p.  sg.  present  ind.  is  heard  merely  as 
ending  in  ft,  whether  spelt  so  or  not.  The  full  form  -eft  stands  only  in  elevated  diction, 
e.g.,  bu  fci^met^t,  fcei^t,  beflci^t  bi^  ;  bu  rceifeft  and  lueift,  bu  pveifeft  and  preift.  (See  118, 
4.)  Notice  also  the  doubling  of  t  and  f  in  f^reiten,  fc^ritt ;  jireiten,  ftritt ;  f^leifen,  fc^Iiff, 
etc.  , 

124.  II.  Class.    Ablaut :    ie  (ii,  au)  o,  0  o,  o* 

1.  Division  :    ie  (an)  o  o. 
The  stem  ends  in  §  (ff),  d),  f,  b-t. 

Examples  :  flicgen,  flo0,  O-'f^'^ff'^" ;  trieffit,  troff,  getroffen. 

Here  belong :  »erbrie§en,  to  disgust,  vex ;  flie§en,  +  flow  ( +  fleet)  ; 
giej^en,  to  pour ;  friec^en,  +  to  crouch,  creep  (?) ;  genie^en,  to  enjoy ;  riectycn, 
to  smell,  +  reek  ;  fc^ic^en,  +  to  shoot  ;  fc^Iiefen,  to  slip,  rare,  supplanted 
by  its  derivative  fc^liipfen;  fc^Ue^en,  to  close,  lock;  fprle^en,  -t-  to  sprout; 
triefen,  +  to  drip  ;  faufen,  to  drink  (of  animals);  fiebcn,  see  index. 

2.  Division  :    ie,  it,  o^u  b  o» 

Examples  :  fltegen,  flog,  geflogen ;  triigen,  trog,  getrogen ;  faugen, 
fog,  gefogen. 

Here  belong :   1.   In  ie :   Megen,  to  bend ;   Heteit,  to  offer,  +  to  bid  ; 

fliegen,  +  to  fly  ;  flie^en,  +  to  flee ;  frleren,  +  to  freeze  ;  flieben,  +  to 
cleave,  split ;  fc^iekn,  +  to  shove ;  |lie6en>  to  scatter  ;  serlieren,  +  to  lose; 
Steven  (jog,  gejogen)),  to  draw. 

2.  In  u  :  furen  (fiefen),  +  to  choose ;  liigen,  +  lie  ;  triigen,  to  deceive. 

3.  In  au  :  faugen,  +  to  suck  ;  fd)nau'6en  (f^nie'6en)r  to  snort,  L.  and  M.  G.; 
fc^raukn,  to  screw  ( +  ?),  L.  G.  >  late  M.  H.  G. 

2.,  3.  pers.  sg.  pres.  show  archaic  forms  sometimes  in  eu  :  fleu^t,  freu^t,  fleugt.  (See 
406.)  Of  those  in  au  only  faufen  has  umlaut,  viz.,  fduffl,  fJiuft.  The  stem  ending  in  ^, 
the  2.  p.  sg.  may  be  bu  fc^te^t,  geniefet.  Notice  the  interchange  of  ^-g  in  ate^en,  jog, 
gejogen,  but  ^  is  silent.  (See  416.)  Notice  also  the  doubling  of  f :  faufen,  foff,  etc. 

125.  ni.  Class.    Ablaut :    e,  i  a  it,  6. 
1.  Division  :    i            a            it. 

The  stem  ends  in  n  +  cons,  (t,  g, !). 

Examples  :  Mttten,  bant,  gebunten;  fpringen,  fprang,  gefprungen. 


40  CONJUGATION".  [127^ 

Here  belong  :  btnbcn,  +  to  bind  ;  Mngen,  to  hire,  originally  and  still  at 
times  weak,  tlie  isolated  weak  past  part,  bebingt  is  a  regular  adjective ; 
bringen,  to  penetrate ;  ftnben/  +  to  find  ;  gelingcn,  to  be  successful  ;  flingen, 
to  be  beard,  resound ;  ringen,  to  struggle,  +  wring ;  fc^inbeitf  +  to  skin, 
pret.  fdbunb;  fc^Iingen,  to  twine,  +  sling,  it  also  has  the  force  of  the  now 
lost  fci^Unben,  to  swallow ;  fdjwinben,  to  disappear ;  fd)n)in9en,  +  to  swing  , 
fmgen,  +  to  sing ;  ftnfen,  +  to  sink ;  fpringen,  +  to  spring  ;  ftinfen,  +  to 
stink;  trinfen,  +  to  drink  ;  tDlnben, +  to  wind  ;  jtoingen,  to  force. 

2.  Division  :    i  a  o* 

The  stem  ends  in  mm  and  nn. 

Examples  :  fpinnen,  fpann,  subj.  fpanne  and  fpbnne,  gefponnen; 
fdjanmmen,  fd)n?amm,  fc^wamme  and  f^momme,  gefc^mommen. 

Here  belong :  kQinnen,  +  to  begin ;  rinneit/  to  flow,  +  run ;  fmncn,  to 
think ;  fd^toimnten,  +  to  swim ;  fpinnen,  4  to  spin ;  gcirinncn,  +  to  win. 

3.  Division  :    e-i  a  6, 

The  stem  ends  in  I,  r  +  cons,  except  tref^en. 

Examples  :  ^^elfen  (^ilft),  ^alf  (liilfe,  plfe),  ge^olfen  ;  merfen 
(wirft),  n?arf  (wiirfc),  gemorfen. 

Here  belong:  krgen,  to  hide,  +  bury,  burrow;  krjlcn,  +  to  burst; 
brefd^en,  +  to  thrash  ;  Qelten,  to  be  worth,  pass  for ;  ^tlftn,  +  to  help ;  f(|elten, 
■+■  to  scold  ;  jlerben,  to  die  (+  starve) ;  serberkn,  to  spoil  (intrans.)  ;  ijer* 
berben  (weak),  to  corrupt ;  tx»crben»  to  enlist,  woo  ;  werben,  to  become,  + 
worth  (see  110) ;  werfen,  to  throw  ( +  warp). 

126.  Notice  the  double  preterits  subj.  (See  464,  3.)  Sub  2,  rinncn  never  has 
„ranne."  The  3.  division  has  generally  and  better  u,  because  you  cannot  tell  ,,^cil)e" 
from  „^elfe"  by  ear.  'Drcidjen  and  berftcn,  once  belonging  to  the  next  class,  have 
brofi^e  —  bva)d)e,  bavfte  —  bor^e. 

The  2.  and  3.  p.  sg.  present  ind.  have  i  instead  of  e.  (See  403.)  As  to  the  suffix, 
bcrften  has  bu  birft,  birfteft,  cr  birft;  getten,  bu  giltft  (pronounced  gilft),  er  gilt;  rcerben,  bu 
roivft,  er  rcirb;  jdjeltcn  like  gelten. 

127.  IV.  Class.     Ablaut :   a,e,e  —  i,  ie  5  5,  o. 
The  stem  contains  I,  r,  m  after  or  before  the  root-vowel. 
Examples:    6red)en    (bridjft),   ha6)    (brac&e),  gebrodsen;    ftet)Ien 

(ftie^lft),  fta^l  (fta^le,  ftb^le),  geflotilen. 


129]  COISTJUGATION-.  41 

Here  belong :  Bred)enf  +  to  break ;  gebdrcn,  +  to  bear,  bring  forth ; 
befe|)len/  to  command  ;  enipfe^Ien,  to  recommend  ;  crf^vecfen  (erfd)raf),  to  be 
frightened;  ne^men,  to  take,  +  nim  ;  [pred)en,  to  speak;  |leci)cn,  +  to  stick, 
stab  ;  ftel)Ien,  +  to  steal ;  treffen  (traf ),  to  hit ;  fommen,  fam,  gefommen,  +  to 
come.     (See  489,  1.) 

S3efc^tcn  and  empfel)len  belonged  to  the  III.  Class,  and  hare- double  subjunctives, 
tcfo^le — bcfa^Ie,  etc.  So  has  fte()ten,  ftol^te— [ta^Ie,  The  umlaut  in  gcOaren  is  only 
graphic  for  e  <  e.  Those  in  -1)1  and  gebdrcn  have  ie  in  2.  and  3.  p.  sg.  present  ind. : 
empfiel)lt,  geljiert.  The  rest  have  i :  triff ft,  jpri^ft ;  bu  tommft,  er  f5mmt  are  quite  common, 
but  not  elegant. 

128.  V.  Class.    Ablaut:   t,   e,e  —  i,te  a  e,  e. 
The  stem  ends  in  any  sound  but  a  liquid, 
l.^^ivision:   e,e  —  i,  ie            a            ?,  5* 

Example  :  gekn  (jjiebft,  gibft),  gab  (gabe),  gegeben. 

Here  belong :  etJen,  +  eat ;  freffen,  +  eat  (said  of  animals) ;  gebcn,  + 
give  ;  genefen,  to  recover ;  gefd)e^en,  to  happen  ;  lefen,  to  read  ;  nteffcn,  +  to 
measure,  +  mete  ;  fe^en,  +  to  see ;  tretcn,  +  to  tread ;  sergeffen,  +  to  for- 
get ;  (iDcfen)  war,  gcwefen,  to  be,  +  was. 

2.  Division  :    i,  ie  a  e,  e. 

Here  belong:  bitten,  bat,  gekten,  to  ask,  +  bid;  Uegen,  lag,  gelegen,  +  to 
lie  ;  fi^en,  fa^,  gefeffen,  +  to  sit. 

The  form  of  the  2.  and  3  persons  sg.  of  the  present  ind.  of  verbs  ending  in  n  is  -^t; 
of  those  in  ^  is  ft  for  both  persons  :  bu,  er  i^t,  tergipt,  fvi^t ;  bu,  ev  lieft.  But  genejen,  bu, 
cr  geneft,  has  no  ie,  probably  because  geuicft  would  have  coincided  with  gcniefet  <  geuiepcn, 
gcnoij,  II.  ;  bu  fi^eft  may  be  contracted  >  figft,  pronounced  merely  „fijt."  The  participle 
of  effen,  viz.,  gcgeffen,  has  gc-  twice,  because  gceffen  was  contracted  into  geffen  very  early. 
This  is  now  colloquial.    (See  F.  2838,  4415.)    Notice  bu  trtttft,  er  tritt ;  bu  Bitteft,  er  bittct. 

129.  YI.  Class.     Ablaut :    a,  a-d  u  a,  a. 

The  stem-vowel  is  short  before  more  than  one    consonant. " 


Example:  ba(fen,(bdcfft),fcul(bu!e),  gckcfen. 

Here  belong  :  bacf  en,  +  to  bake,  in  N.  G.  generally  weak  ;  fasten,  to  ride, 
+  fare  ;  graben,  to  dig;  laben,  to  invite,  and  laben,  +  load  ;  laben  (strong). 


42  CONJUGATIOK.  [130- 

+  to  load,  and  laben  (weak),  to  invite,  have  been  confounded  since  early 
N.  H.  G.;  they  are  of  different  origin  ;  [(^affen  (fd)uf),  to  create  (weak,  "to 
work  ") ;  fc^Iaoien,  to  strike,  +  slay ;  tragen,  to  carry ;  »aii)fen,  to  grow,  + 
wax  ;  tt?afc^en,  +  to  wash ;  (jle^en),  jlunb,  j^anb  (jhinbe,  jlanbe),  geftanben,  +  to 
stand,  flunb  is  still  common  in  S.  G. 

Here  belonged  also  formerly  :  I)e{>en  {^th\t),  I)itb,  getiokn,  to  raise,  + 
heave ;  fc^wbren  (fd^wortl),  fc^wur — \<iimox,  gefc^itjoren,  +  to  swear,  ^-ragen 
(fragft),  frug  (but  never  gefragen),  "  to  ask,"  are  frequently  heard  ;  also  jagcn 
(jcigil),  jug»  "to  chase."  The  forms  are  still  frowned  upon  by  gram- 
marians because  they  are  "wrong,"  but  the  people  use  them  just  the 
same. 

In  the  2.  and  3.  p.  present  ind.  a  is  the  rule  excepting  jc^affcn,  f(^afffi,  which  is  under 
the  influence  of  the  weak  verb.  Notice  bu  and  er  wad^ft,  bu  icifc^ft  (pronounced  rcajc^t). 
Isolated  participles  :  gema^Ien,  ground  ;  mal^len  is  now  w^eak,  mal^len,  ma^lte,  gema^U, 
to  grind  ;  cv^aben,  lofty,  <  cr^^eBen,  erl^oben. 

130.  VII.  Class.  Characteristic  is  ie  in  the  preterit, 
which  is  no  ablaut,  while  the  past  participle  always  has  the 
vowel  of  the  infinitive. 

For  convenience  we  make  two  groups. 
1.  Division.    The  seeming  ablaut  is  :  a,  a  ie  ft,  a* 

a  before  more  than  one  consonant,  ie  =  short  i  before  -ng. 
Examples:  fangen  (fangft),  fleng,  gefangen;  braten  (bratft,  brat), 
Briet,  gekaten. 

Here  belong :  blafen,  +  blow,  +  blare  (?) ;  hxattn,  to  roast,  fry ;  fatten 
(fiel),  +  to  fall ;  fangen  (rarer  fa|en)r,  to  catch  ;  (gc^en),  gieng,  gegangcn,  +  go, 
went,  gone  ;  ^altcn,  +  to  hold  ;  fangen,  +  to  hang  ;  laffen,  +  to  let,  cause  ; 
raten,  to  advise  ;  fd)lafcn,  +  to  sleep. 

Umlaut  is  the  rule  in  the  2.  and  3.  p.  present  ind.  Notice  bu  ratfi,  ev  vat ;  tu,  er  6Iafl ; 
bu  ^attp  (pronounced  „^alft")-  er  i)aU ;  bu  ta^jeft  or  bu,  er  laijt.  The  umlaut  in  this  whole 
class  is  late  ;  in  later  M.  H.  G.  they  have  it  rarely.  The  "  Rules  "  prefer  the  spelling 
i  to  ie,  viz.,  ^ing,  fing,  ging. 

131.  2.  Division  :    au,  el,  o,  n  ie  avi,  et,  5,  it. 

Here  belong  :  ^aucn,  ^icb  {b  <  rt>),  gc^aucn,  +  to  hew  ;  laufen,  lief,  gelaufen, 
to  run,  +  leap  ;  ^ei§cn,  ^iep,  ge^eipen,  to  call,  command,  +  bight  j  jloien 
(I'Ue^),  to  kick,  thrust ;  rufen  (rief),  to  call. 


133]  CONJUGATION.  43 

Only  flc^en  and  generally  laufen  take  the  nmlaut :  bu,  cr  fl6|t;  bu  liuffl, 
©c^eifcen,  once  of  this  class,  has  gone  into  i ;  „ge^te^ett,"  according  to  i,  is  some- 
times heard,  but  must  still  be  rejected  as  incorrect.  Of  this  class  there  are  a  great 
many  isolated  participles  of  verbs  that  have  changed  conjugation,  e.  g.,  befd^eifccn, 
modest  (but befc^ieben,  "ordered") ;  vjeicfjvoten,  rough-ground  ;  gejaljen,+ salt ;  gefpalten, 
"  spJit " ;  gerealjen,  rolled,  etc.    Uiufen,  rufte,  geruft  is  not  correct. 

132.  VIII.  Class.  Characteristic  is  o  in  the  preterit  and 
past  participle,  long  or  short  according  to  the  following  con- 
sonants. 

The  verbs  belonging  here  are  stragglers  from  all  the  other  ablaut - 
series.  There  must  be  therefore  a  number  that  are  still  afloat ;  that  is, 
according  to  the  usage  of  the  period  in  which  they  are  taken,  they  be- 
long to  their  regular  class  or  to  this.  Present  usage  in  the  spoken  lan- 
guage always  favors  0  —  0,  e.g.,  fc^roorcn,  fd)Wor,  gefc^woren,  vi ;  brefc^en, 
brofc^,  gebrofc^en*  in  ;  ^thtn,  f)D^,  gc^oben,  vi,  which  have  been  assigned  by  us, 
however,  to  their  proper  classes.  Sugen^  ii,  and  trugen,  ii,  have  sprung 
from  Uegen  and  triegen  under  the  influence  of  the  nouns  Siige,  S^rug.  They 
might  be  classed  here ;  as  also  fitren,  ii,  for  fiefen  ;  compare  the  noun 
^ur('furfl),  elector. 

133.  The  vowels  of  the  present  may  be  e,  i,  a,  a,  b» 
The  ablaut  is  most  frequently  e  o  o. 

We  count  here :  tellen  (Settt,  Wt),  to  bark,  in ;  fec^ten  (ftcfitfl,  flc^t),  +  to 
fight,  IV,  III;  flec^ten  ([lic^ttl,  pronounced  flic^jl,  flid)t),  to  braid,  iv,  iii; 
pfle^ien,  to  carry  on,  undertake,  v,  rv,  in  the  sense  of  "to  be  accustomed,^' 
"  to  care  for,"  always  weak  ;  melfen  (melft  and  milft),  -f  to  milk  in  ;  queflen 
(quint),  to  swell,  gush, in  ;  fd)ellen  (f*tllt  archaic),  generally  fc^aUen  the  weak 
verb,  "to  resound,"  weak  =  to  cause  to  resound,  ring,  in  ;  fc^meljen 
([(^miUft,  fc^mtljt),  -I-  to  melt,  in ;  fc^wetten  (f(^tt)tttt),  +  to  swell,  in ;  tt)ekn 
(raebil),  strong  and  weak,  -f  to  weave,  v ;  bewegen  (beiucgjl),  to  induce, 
weak  =  to  move,  v ;  glimnten,  to  glow,  in,  3  ;  flimmen.  +  to  climb,  in,  2  ; 
garen  (gcirt),  to  ferment,  also  weak,  iv;  crttjagen  (erwdgfl);  to  consider;  n^agen 
or  roiegcn  (if  ie,  ii),  ivagft,  tuiegj},  +  to  weigh  (-wdgen,  rt»iegen,  -wegcn  are  in 
M.  H.  (}.  the  same  word,  v) ;  rdc^cn  (rdc^t),  +  to  wreak,  sometimes  has  rod), 
gero(^en,  but  is  generally  weak,  iv;  erlofc^eUr  intrans.,  to  die  out  (of  a  flame), 
(crlifc^efi,  erlifc^t),  but  trans.  lofd)cn,  to  extinguish,  in  ;  'oerrotrren,  to  confuse, 
in,  is  generally  weak,  but  has  an  isolated  participle,  tierworren  =  intricate, 
complicated;  f^eren  (f(^ier|l,  fc^ievt)  +  shear,  iv,  is  sometimes  weak. 


44  ANOMALOUS   VERBS.  [134- 

ANOMALOUS   VERBS. 

1.  The  Preterit-Present  Verbs. 

134.  To  this  group  belong  the  modal  auxiliaries  and  tt?iffen. 
They  are  originally  strong  verbs,  whose  preterits  are  used  as 
presents.  New  preterits,  past  participles,  and  infinitives  w^ere 
formed  weak.  The  infinitives,  the  present  plural,  and  the  new 
strong  participle  have  the  same  vowel,  sometimes  with  an 
irregular  umlaut :  !i3nnen  (inf.),  tt)ir  fbnnen,  fenncn  (past  part.). 
The  different  vowels  of  the  present  in  the  sg.  and  pi.  ireip, 
mifjen ;  the  subjunct.,  with  umlaut,  ntag,  mc(^e ;  the  lack  of  t  in 
the  3.  p.  sg.,  er  mag,  are  still  traces  of  their  strong  conjugation. 
The  weak  preterit  was  formed  without  connecting  vowel,  and 
has  umlaut  in  the  subjunctive :  mbgen,  mod^te,  mccbte,  gcmodjt. 
(See  119,  2,  and  454,  3.)  The  strong  participle  in  -en  stands 
in  the  compound  tenses,  when  an  infinitive  depends  u^^on  the 
auxiUary:  i(^  i^iah  fd^reiben  mujfen,  but  id)  tjabe  gemuft.  An  im- 
perative, the  meaning  permitting,  is  niade  up  from  the 
subjunctive,  e.g.,  trolle,  moge. 

135.  1.  S3i|Ten,  i,  to  know,  +  to  wit  (wot,  he  wist). 

Inf.  Pret.  ind.  Subj.  Participles. 

*      •*■     -«"     IS 

The  pres.  ind.  inflects:  i^  mei§,  tu  n?ci§t,  er  iretf,  irir  iinjyen,  it)r 
wifT(0^/  1^^  mijfen.  Subj. :  ic^  mijje,  m\\t^,  ttJijfe,  etc.  Imp. :  wtjfe; 
wijfpt,  njijjen  Sie. 

2.  Xiirfen,  in,  to  be  permitted. 

Inf.  Free.  sg.  Pret.  ind.  Subj.  Past  part. 

.  ( cieturft 

tureen  tart  turftc  biirrte  ll'-  - 

Pres.  ind. :  tarf,  tarrjl,  tarf,  tiirfen,  tiirft,  tiirfen,  Subj. :  fciirff, 
tiirtefl,  tiirfe,  etc. 


136]  ANOMALOUS   VERBS.  45 


3.  .^onnen,  in,  to  be  able,  +  can. 

Inf.  Pres.  sg.  Pret.  ind. 

fonnen  !ann  fonnte  fbnnte 


Inf.  Pres.  sg.  Pret.  ind.  Subj.  Past  part. 

j  gefonnt 
\  fennen 


Pres.  ind, :  !ann,  fattnft,  !ann,  fonnen,  etc.    Subj. :  fonne,  fonneft, 
*onne,  etc.     Imp. :  fonne,  fonnt,  fonnen  (Sie. 


4.  5}tbgcn,  V,  IV,  to  be  able,  -f  may. 


Inf.                 Pres.  sg. 

Pret.  ind.               Subj. 

mogen            mag 

modjte           mb(^te 

Just  like  fonnen. 

5.  (Sotlen,  IV,  4-  sliall. 

Inf.               Pres.  sg. 

Pret.  ind.  and  subj. 

follen             foU 

foUte 

Past  part. 

I  gemod)t 
I  mbgen 


Past  part. 

( fotlen 


Pres.  ind.:  foU,  fotlft,  fod,  [otlen,  etc. 


Tills  is  almost  entirely  weak  now.     The  vowel-difference  in  the  pres. 
"hve  hc<in  levelled  away.     Comp.  Eng.  shall,  should. 

^7.  ^r^u%:?,  VI,  +  must. 

III*'.  Pres.  sg.  Pret.  ind.  Snbj.  Past  part. 

(  9emu§t 


[  miiffen 


miiffon  mu§  mufte  mu§te 

Pres.  ind,  .  mu§,  mu§t,  muj.     Subj.  :  miilfe,  etc. 
This  too  is  ilmost  entirely  weak. 

7.  SSollen,  i,  +  will. 

Inf.  Pres.  sg.  Subj.  Ind.  and  subj.  Pret.  Past  part. 

troUen  triU  ttjotle  njodte  j  geivoUt 

( tuoflen 

Pres.  ind. :  witi,  wiM,  toiU,  ttJoUen,  ii>o(It,  iroflen.     (See  472,  2.) 

II.    The  verbs   gc^n,  +  to  go,  ftel)n, -f  to    stand,  t()un, 
+  to  do. 


4:6  ANOMALOUS  VERBS. 


[137- 


136.  1.  ®eKe)n. 

Pres.  ind. :  id)  gc^e,  tu  gc^fl,  er  ge^t,  tt?ir  gek,  i^r  ge^t,  [u  ge^n. 
Subj.:  i(^  ge^e,  tu  ge^eft,  er  ge^e,  etc. 
Imp.  sg.:  get);  pi,  ge^t,  get)en  ete.     Part.:  ge^ent). 
Pret.  ind.:  i(^  ijieng.     Subj.:  icb  gienge. 
Pari:  gegangen.     Accordiug  to  vn  ;  from  a  stem  "gang." 

2.  (Ste^(e)n. 

Pres.  ind.:  id?  fte^e,  tu  fte^ft,  er  ftefct,  ttjir  ftelm,  i^r  fte^t,  fie  ftc^n. 
Subj. :  id)  fte^e,  in  ftel)eft,  cr  fte^e,  etc. 
Imp.  sg. :  \tt^;  pi.,  ftebt,  fte^en  @ie.    Part.:  fte^ent. 
Pret.  ind.:  i(^  ftanD  (ftunr).     Subj.:  ftiinte  (ftiinte). 
Part.:  geftanten.     According  to  vi ;   from  a  stem  " s^ancZ.' 

3.  3:^un. 

Pres.  ind.  :  id)  t^ue,  t»u  ti)vi%  er  t^iit,  ivir  tbun,  i(jr  t^ut,  fie  tbnn. 
Subj. :  ic^  tt)ue,  bu  t()ueft,  er  tl)uf,  wir  t^iin,  iljr  tl)ut,  )ie  H)uen. 

Imp.  sgj  t^u;  pL,  tl)ut,  tl)un  ©ie.     Part.:  t^uen^. 

Pret.  ind. :  ic^  t^at,  tu  tbatft,  er  t^at,  mir  t^aten,  i^r  t^atet,  fie 
t^aten.     Subj.:  ic^  t^dte,  tu  tbiiteft,  er  tVaU,  etc. 

Part.:  get^an. 

The  full  forms  with  e  of  these  three  verbs  are  not  used  in  the  indica- 
tive. The  ^  is  merely  graphic,  and  is  not  pronounced,  e.  g.,  ic^  geoe  is  not 
gc-^e,  but  gc  or  ge'e. 

137.  Tbe  compound  verbs  are  not  inflected  differently  from 
the  simple  verbs.  Notice  tbe  position  of  tbe  separable  prefix, 
and  ge-  in  separable  compound  verbs:  icb  fd?reibe  an,  fc^ri^b  an; 
imp.  fdjreibe  (tu)  an,  id)  ^abe  angcfcbrieben,  id)  tt)ert)e  anfc&reiben. 
The  separable  prefix  stands  apart  from  the  verb  in  the  simple 
tenses  (pres.  and  pret.),  but  only  in  main  clauses;  ge-,  ju-  stand 
between  prefix  and  verb,  angefd)rie6en,  an^ufdjreiben.  Ex.:  3d) 
fd)reibe,  fd^rieb  ten  33rief  ab,  but  njdl)rent  id)  ten  33rief  abfd)rieb 
(dependent  clause).      In  inseparable  compounds  notice  the 


138]  ANOMALOUS  VERBS.  47 

participle  has  no  ge  :  icfc  loerfte^e,  ijerj^ant,  ^aBe  ijerflanbcn,  njerbe 
i3erftet)n.     (See  108,  3.) 

1.  Notice  a  class  of  inseparable  compounds  derived  from  compound 
nouns.  These  have  ge.  They  can  be  easily  recognized  by  the  chief 
stress  falling  on  the  first  element:  ba^  dxWi)\iM,  verb  frit'^ftiicfen,  frii^ftucfte, 
gefrit^jliicft,  to  breakfast;  ber  SRa'tfc^lag,  verb  ra'tfc^Iagcn,  rat[d)lagte,  geratfc^lagt, 
to  take  council. 

138.     Additional  examples  of  verb  inflections. 

1 .  Strong  presents  with  the  second  persons  sing,  and  pi.  of 
the  imperative. 

a.  ftreiten,  strive,  I. ;  [^  j^reite,  bu  j^reitcfi,  cr  flreitet,  mx  (Ireiten, 
il)r  ftreitet,  fte  ftreiten  ;  ftreite,  ftreitet. 

b.  bitten,  ask,  V. ;  ic^  bitte,  bu  Mttefl,  er  bittet,  mir  bitten,  i()r 
mttt,  fte  bitten  ;  bitte,  bittet. 

c.  trngen,  carry,  VI. ;  \6^  trage,  bu  trdgji,  er  tragt,  tt)ir  trngen, 
tt)r  traget,  fie  tragen ;  trage,  traget. 

d.  raten,  advise,  VII. ;  i^  rate,  bu  ratft,  er  rat,  njir  raten,  i^r 
ratet,  fte  raten  ;  rate,  ratet. 

2.  Reflexive  verb :  ftc^  fet)nen,  to  long. 

a.  Present :  id)  fe^ne  mid),  bu  fet)nfl  bic^,  er  fe^nt  ftc^,  n?ir  fe^nen 
m\^,  i()r  fe^nt  enc^,  fte  fel)nett  fid). 

b.  Perfect:  id)  i^aU  mid)  gefe^nt,  bu  ^afl  bic^  gffe^nt,  er  ()at  ft(^ 
gefe^nt,  luir  ^aben  uns  gefet)nt,  it)r  ^abt  euc^  g^fe^nt,  fie  ^ahm  ftc!^ 
gefe()nt. 

3.  Separable  compound  and  reflexive  verb :  fic^  anmelben, 
announce  one's  self. 

a.  Present :  i(^  metbe  mic^  an,  bu  metbejl  bicb  an,  er  melbet  ftc^ 
an,  mv  melben  un^  an,  i()r  melbet  end^  an,  pe  melben  fic^  an. 

b.  Perfect:  ic^  \:)aht  mic^  angemelbet,  bu  ^aft  bic^  angemelbet, 
er  l)at  fid)  angemelbet,  n?ir  t^ahm  un^  angemelbet,  i^r  l)abt  euc^ 
angemelbet,  fie  l)aben  ftc^  angemelbet. 


142J  SYNTAX   OF  THE  ARTICLE.  51 


SYNTAX. 

139.  For  practical  reasons  we  divide  the  Syntax  into 
Special  and  General  Syntax. 

The  Special  treats  of  the  function  of  the  word,  inflected  or 
uninflected,  in  a  sentence. 

The  General  treats  of  the  combination  of  words  into  a 
sentence,  of  the  word-order,  and  of  the  combination  of 
clauses  into  a  compound  sentence. 

It  is  of  course  difficult  to  lieep  these  two  divisions  separate,  as  in  fact  all  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  grammar.  Thus  the  separation  of  inflection  and  function,  of  phonol- 
ogy and  inflection,  of  word-formation  and  syntax  is  a  violent  one.  The  division  into 
special  and  general  syntax  is  the  custom  of  French  grammarians,  who  have  succeeded 
best  in  freeing  their  grammatical  system  from  the  strait-jacket  of  Latin  and  Greek 
grammars. 

SPECIAL     SYNTAX. 

The  parts  of  speech  are  treated  here  in  the  same  order  as  they  are  in  the  Accidence. 

Syntax  of  the  Article. 

140.  The  use  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun  as  definite  article  is 
much  older  than  that  of  the  numeral  „tm"  as  indefinite  article.  «Sln" 
was  used  where  the  definite  article  could  not  stand  ;  hence  the  plural  of 
etn  Warn  is  still  'JJZfinner.  In  0.  H.  G.  the  article  is  still  lacking  ;  its  use 
spread  in  M.  H.  G. ,  so  that  now  it  is  almost  a  necessity. 

Some  General  Cases  of  Absence  of  the  Article. 

141.  Proper  names,  names  of  materials  always  when  pre- 
ceded by  nouns  expressing  quantity  and  measure,  have  no 
article.  Ex. :  (5)oet{)e  erreid^tc  ein  !^o^eg  Sllter,  ©chiller  ftarb  »er^ 
l)altnt5md§ig  jung.     Slei  tft  meidjer  aU  ®oIt.    din  ^mnt)  ^vidiv. 

142.  No  noun  preceded  by  a  genitive  can  take  an  article: 
IDe^  Xenten^  ^abert  tft  serriffen  (F.  1748).  Xer  alten  ©otter  hunt 
©enjtmm'et  (G.). 


52  SYKTAX  OF  THE   ARTICLE.  [143- 

143.  There  is  no  article  before  nouns  (connected  by  unt, 
trcter,  ncc^  or  unconnected)  in  certain  set  and  adverbial  phrases; 
in  an  enumeration  of  objects  belonging  to  the  same  class  or 
genus.  Ex. :  ®el^  un^  (SJut.  ipaug  unt  ipof.  9Jlit  ®ott  fiir  ^bnig 
unl  3SaterIanl).  3«  ©aue  unJ  53rau^.  (Binn  unt  35erftanc  »er(ier' 
i6>  iWer  (F.  2504).  ^Ztdbt  irtifc^  ifl  teg  3:^oren  3:ran!  no*  8peife 
(F.  301).  6oa  i^  mit  (SJrtffel,  ^JJ^eipel,  gct)er  fcbreiben?  (F.  1732). 
Ura^ne,  ®ro§mutter,  ^3}?utter  unt  .^infc  in  tumpfer  ®tube  beifammen  fine 
(Schwab).  3"  2;ifA  ju  ^ctte  ^au5  an  ^am,  Stein  anf  8tein,  nad) 
Dften,  gen  ©iiten,  ijon  ^^lorten  (but  notice  im  Dfien,  im  ©iiten,  etc. 

144.  All  pronouns  exclude  the  article,  except  fold),  man&i, 
tDtl6>,,  tcai  fiir,  which  allow  an  indefinite  article  after  them,  and 
al((e),  which  allows  the  definite  article  after  it;  e.  g. :  ^a^  foU 
all  ter  ©c^merj  wnt  Suft  (G.).  S>el(^  ein  gefd)aftig  33olf  eilt  ein  unD 
ang  (id.).     Seae  fiir  ein  Sant^mann  bift  tu,  S^O^i*  •  (Sch.). 

145.  An  abstract  noun,  and  any  noun  denoting  profession, 
rank,  position  have  no  article  in  the  predicate  after  neuter 
verbs;  e.  g. :  ^t)ilofte't,ter  ganj^latur  i\t,  bringt  and)  ben  5^eoptole'm 
pi  feiner  9^atnr  n?ieter  juriid  (Le.).  ^ei§e  5!J?agifter;  ^ct§e  Toctor 
gar  (F.  360).  (3d))  bin  ©oltat,  fomme  niemalg  touttx  (Sch.), 
Eng.,  I  am  a  soldier. 

146.  1.  In  technical  phrases  some  nouns  and  adjectives  used  as 
such  take  no  article  :  ©(^reiber  biefe^,  the  writer  of  this ;  ^lager,  plaintiflf; 

SSefagter;  ®ebad)ter;  DHge^;  ^olgenbetS,  etc.    In  headings:  Ueber  5lnmut  unb 
SBurbe  (Sch.).     Safu(5Ie^re,  i^lenon^lcl^rc. 

2.    In  folk-lore  and  folk-songs :  S^otfoip^jc^en,  Little  Red  Riding-hood  ; 

©d^necwittc^cn.    ^nabe  f^^rac^:  id)  bred)c  bic^.    SRoiSIcin  fprad^:  i^  flcAe  bid^  (G.). 
3:^urc^en  fnarrt.    ^Wau^lctn  pfcift. 

Article  with  Proper  Nouns. 

147.  The  rule  is:  no  article  before  proper  nouns  just  as 
in  English. 

1.  Names  of  persons  may  take  an  article  when  the  bearer  is 


149j  ARTICLE   WITH   PROPER  NOUNS.  53 

well  known  and  his  name  has  become  a  common  noun;  to  ex- 
press familiarity  and  intimacy,  also  contempt;  to  mark  gender 
and  case  more  clearly  (this  applies  also  to  names  of  places 
and  countries) ;  when  the  author's  or  artist's  name  is  used  for 
his  work;  before  names  of  planets,  of  ships,  of  the  characters 
of  a  play,  of  titles  of  books  taken  from  a  person.  Ex. :  (£in 
©af^ini^on,  l^er  SSelfe,  bie  Dttonen.  Schiller's  Tell  and  Wallen- 
stein,  GJ-oethe's  Gotz  and  L3ssing's  M.  von  Barnhelm  are  full 
of  examples  of  the  second  use  (famiharity,  etc.).  Xte  33ufte  te^ 
(gofratfy.  SJdr'ic^cem  gertinant  gewefen,  ttja^  Dctaoio  mir  war  .  .  . 
(Sch.).  2a§t  fid)  nennen  ben  S^adenftcin  (Sch.)  (contempt). 
Xeyrient  fpielte  ten  5^atl)att.  ^ein  %vtnn\)  ^at  ten  Sorot  ijerfauft 
(painting  by  Corot).     !Der  Jperfule^  ift  befd^aticjt. 

2.  Names  of  countries  and  provinces  which  are  not  neuter 
take  the  definite  article.  Most  of  these  are  feminine  and  a 
few  masculine,  viz.,  compounds  :  ter  33ret^gau,  S^lljein^au,  ter 
(Buntgau;  also  ter  ipaag  (  +  the  Hague);  ter,  tag  ^1]^^,  Femi- 
nines  in  -ei :  tie  2;ur!ei',  83allad?ei' ;  in  ~au  :  tie  ?0^oltau,  tie 
SBetterau ;  in  -mar!  :  tie  9^eumarf ,  tie  Oftmarl ;  Me  2auft^,  tie 
8d)tt?ei3,  tie  ^rimm,  tie  ?eyante,  tie  ^fals-  Some  neuters  in  -lant: 
tag  5SogtIant,  tag  3BenttIant,  tie  9lieterlante,  pi. 

3.  Names  of  oceans,  lakes,  straits,  rivers,  mountains,  and 
forests  always  have  the  definite  article,  e.  g.,  tag  ^ittelmeer,  tie 
Dftfee,  ter  Sotenfee,  ter  33elt,  ter  ©unt,  ter  St^ein,  tie  Xonau,  ter 
^arj,  ter  ©pejfavt,  tie  5llpen,  ter  ©d^trarjmalt. 

4.  Names  of  the  seasons,  months,  days  of  the  week,  of  the 
streets  of  a  city:  „I^er  SCinter  ift  ein  S^renmann"  (Claudius). 
3m  3<Jnuar,  teg  ©onntagg,  auf  or  in  ter  ,taiferftra§e,  tm  5rut)Ung. 

148.  Appellatives  have  an  article  as  in  Enghsh:  tie  3;^rane 
quiflt,  tie  (Srte  ^at  mi^  mieter  (F.  784).  For  exceptions  see 
141-146. 

149.  Abstract  nouns  have  no  article  when  they  denote  a 
characteristic  or  state  of  mind:    ^}}Zut  jeiget  au^  ter  Wamdnd] 


54  SYKTAX   OF  THE   ARTICLE.  [150- 

©e^orfain  {(I  te^5  (E^riften  (B&jinud  (Sch.).  greube  war  in  Zvm'^ 
fallen  (id.)  ^rieg  tft  emiij  swtfd)en  2ift  unt)  Slr^mo^n  (id.).  But 
when  they  denote  an  act  or  motion  they  are  treated  as  appel- 
latives. They  may  also  take  the  article  that  has  generalizing 
force,  e.  g.,  T)iv  Zo^  ift  ter  eiinten  @olD  (B.).  tk  ®at)l  ftel)t  ttr 
no6:)  fret  (Sch.).  I^ie  ^unft  ift  lattg  um  furj  ift  unfer  Seben  (F. 
558-9).  'Tie  ^otfd^aft  ^brM(^  mot)I,  allein  mir  fep  ter  ©laube 
(F.  765).     T)a^  war  tin  ec%u§  !  (Sch.). 

150.  Names  of  materials  have  the  generalizing  article, 
which  denotes  the  whole  kind  or  substance,  or  an  article  that 
singles  out  a  certain  kind  or  quantity,  e.  g,,  I^er  S3ein  erfreut 
te5  ^^J^ertfdjen  ^erj  (B.).  Ta^  ®olD  tft  foftBar.  Xie  Steinfo^Ie  ift 
[(^.uar;^  oDer  kaun.  Without  article:  (Silber  unt)  ®ol^  ^a6e  i^  nic^t 
(B.).  Shit  ift  gefloffeit  (Sch.).  Saf  mir  Un  beften  Sed^cr  SBein^  in 
purem  ®oIre  reid^^n  (G.). 

151.  Collective  nouns  take  an  article  except  when  taken 
in  a  partitive  sense:  2Ga^  rcnnt  tae  5)oIf  ?  (Sch.).  2Beit  tatunten 
war  nod)  Jas  gu^oolf  (id.).     2Cnr  ^akn  ?^ii^yoIf  unt)  Sleiterei  (id.). 

152.  All  classes  of  nouns  qualified  by  an  adjective,  by  a 
genitive,  by  a  relative  clause,  etc.,  take  an  article  in  the  singu- 
lar, excepting  names  of  materials  and  nouns  in  the  vocative,  in 
the  predicate  or  in  certain  adverbial  phrases.  The  plural  has 
the  definite  article  or  none.  Ex.  :  2)er  fleine  (S3ott  ter  SBelt  Heitt 
ftet3  »ort  glei^em  <Sd)(ac^  (F.  281).  Ter  ®ott,  ter  Gifen  n?ad5)cn 
Iie§  ♦  ♦  ♦  (Amdt).  Xie  ^auptftatt  ijon  Branfreid).  But  (8ic) 
fpra(^cn  taut  »o(I  ^o^en  (Binn^  unt  ®efiil)te^  (G.).  5^ad>  alter  5v>cifc. 
S^  gab  fd)'6nre  ^nkn  aU  tie  unfern  (Sch.).  I^er  alte  Sarbaroffa 
(Uh.). 

153.  The  genitive  preceding  a  noun  always  has  the  article 
except  a  proper  name  :  3"  tf^  "iliJ^armor^  falte  SCangen  (Sch.). 
3nbe^  2BatDe0  mUtt  (id.).  Schiller's  „an  Ufer'^  fRariD"  Goethe 
would  have  made  a  compound,  ^Ufer^rant."  Comp.  „53ergc6^ 
^b^le"  and  other  compounds  of  Goethe. 


158]  REPETITIOJf   OF   THE   ARTICLE.  55 

.  154.  The  definite  article  stands  for  an  Eng.  possessive 
pronoun,  when  the  possessor  cannot  be  mistaken.  There 
may  or  may  not  be  a  personal  pronoun  as  object  in  the  sen- 
tence. Ex. :  T)cx  ^opf  thnt  mir  fo  me^  (Song).  ^aH  xi)V  mir  ten 
%inQcx  blo^  genommen?  (Sch.).  (vSte)  rul)rt  il)m  leifc  tie  @ct>ulter 
(H.  and  D.  4,  63).     See  243,  3. 

155.  1.  In  S.  G.  the  definite  article  is  always  applied  to  members  of 
the  family  instead  of  the  possessive  pronouns.  In  N.  Q.,  as  in  Eng.,  no 
article  is  necessary:  ®rii§^  ben  S3atcr  unb  SJateriS  ©ruber !  (Sch.), 

2.  As  with  proper  names  so  names  of  materials  and  abstract  nouns 
often  have  the  definite  article  in  the  genitive  and  dative  merely  to  show 

the  case :  ber  ^ilc^  Saffer  vorjie^en. 

156.  The  definite  article  is  used  in  German  for  the  indefi- 
nite in  English  in  a  distributive  sense  :  ^^utter  foftet  antertl)al6 
Wlaxl  ^a^  '2)func,  a  pound  ;  ttefc^  Zu6)  foftet  90  ^fenni9(e)  tie  SUe; 
funfmal  ta^  ^a^x  or  im  3^^^^ ♦  This  "  a  "  in  Eng.  represents  the 
preposition  "  on/'  and  is  not  the  indefinite  article. 

157.  Sin  can  stand  in  German  before  certain  indefinite  pronouns  and 
neuter  adj.  where  it  does  not  stand  in  Eng.:  eitt  jeber^  ein  jegltc^er,  etn  fotc^er, 
ein  mand)er  (better  ntand)  ciuer) ;  ein  fe|le(3,  =  a  fixed  sum ;  ein  me^reres?,  — 
more ;  ein  votniQC^,  =  little.     3c^  fd)retk  nct^jleniS  ein  me^rere^. 

Repetition  of  the  Article. 

158.  Before  each  of  several  nouns  of  different  gender  the 
article  must  be  repeated  if  it  stand  at  all:  Xer  ^ater,  tie  Gutter 
tie  gingen  »or  tei3  ^auptmattn^  ^au^  (Song).  If  two  nouns,  con- 
nected by  unt,  denote  different  persons  the  article  should  be 
repeated  :  I^er  DnM  unt  ^at^e  te^  ^inte^  n?ar  M  ter  Zank 
gugegen  (one  person).  But  ter  Dnfcl  unt  ter  ^at^t  ♦  .  .  (two 
persons). 

Both  rules  are  often  offended  against  by  Luther,  Goethe,  and  Lessing, 
and  frequently  in  the  spoken  language  :  2Benn  man  ben  5Waler  unb  !Di(f)ter  mil 
eiuanbcr  »er9lcid)en  Wid  .  .  .  (Le.). 

The  article  before  an  apposition  is  treated  as  in  Englisli. 


66  SYNTAX   OF  THE   GENDEB.  [159- 


SYNTAX   OF   THE    GENDER. 

159.  The  grammatical  gender  of  nouns  is  threefold,  mas- 
culine, feminine,  neuter.  As  to  living  beings,  the  nouns  de- 
noting males  are  masculine,  and  those  denoting  females  femi- 
nine. Ex. :  tier  %vL(ii^,  Some,  Uv  gute  SJJann,  5f?effe,  ^nedjt,  Dcb^, 
^ocf ;  tie  ^ub,  Siege,  ^afe,  fc^one  ^O^lagt),  lie  (Ban,  (Stute. 

1.  Exceptions :  nouns  denoting  the  young  of  animals,  diminutives, 
and  ha^  SBeib,  ba^  ?Wenf(i)  (see  59),  ba^  grauenjimmer  are  neuter.  Ex.:  ba^ 
%txkl,  ^ittten,  ^a%  SKabd^en,  i^raulein. 

2.  Any  grammatical  gender  is  ascribed  to  the  names  of  the  species 
without  regard  to  sex.  Neuter:  ba^  S^ferb,  i^a^  ©(^tuein,  ba^  ®<i)af,  ba^ 
fRc|.     Fem. :   bic  5?a(|tigan,  Slmeife,  SBiene,  CWaua,  fRattt,    Masc. :   bet  ^if;^/ 

160.  Where  the  grammatical  gender  does  not  coincide 
with  the  natiu'al,  the  following  rules  may  be  of  service,  based 
on  the  meanings  of  nouns  and  on  their  derivation.  See  159,  1. 

Gender  according  to  meaning. 

1.  Masculine  are  : 

The  names  of  the  points  of  compass,  of  the  winds,  seasons, 
months,  days  of  the  week;  of  mammals  (a  few  small  ones  like 
tie  ^au^,  tie  9latte  excepted),  most  of  the  larger  birds,  most 
fish,  and  stones. 

Ex. :  ter  ?lorb  or  ^^^orten;  ©ommer;  %thxmr,  5lugu'|l;  5J?ctttag, 
©onnabent;  ter  Sfel,  Some,  Slefant ;  lex  8trau§,  Sltler,  ®torc^ ;  ber 
^ai,  2tal,  ^arpfen  (all  compounds  with  -fifd),  of  course,  as  ter 
Saljifcb,  ^lippertfifd^) ;  ter  ^iefel,  Xiama'nt,  ^^eltfpat. 

2.  Feminine  are  : 

The  names  of  most  rivers,  trees,  plants,  and  flowers  (in  -e), 
insects,  small  singing  birds,  and  nearly  all  derivative  abstract 
nouns. 


161]  GENDER  ACCORDING  TO   DERIVATION.  57 

Ex. :  ttie  Sefer,  Dter,  SI6e  ;  tie  Sid^e,  3:anne,  ^u6^t  ;  bie  S^^elfe, 
3lo|'e,  9lube,  9leffel,  ^artoffel ;  t)ie  Slmcife,  SCan^e,  33iene ;  tie  ^'^ad^tigatl, 
@^it>albe,  Serd^e;  also  tie  ^ra|e,  Sule*  I)ie  2iek,  2:ugent,  Swgftt^, 
l^emut,  greuntlidjfeit,  etc. 

3.  Neuter  are  : 

The  names  of  places  and  countries  except  those  always  hav- 
ing the  article  (see  147,  2),  collective  nouns  (particularly  those 
with  ®e-) ;  most  names  of  materials  including  metals,  of  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet;  other  parts  of  speech  used  as  nouns, 
particularly  adjectives  not  denoting  persons  (see  169). 

Ex. :  „ta^  fAone  ©panien/'  „ein  flein  faxi^,"  tag  55olf,  ^eer,  (^^^ 
HxQt,  ©efc^it^;  ta3  ipol^,  Jpeu,  <B6^maii  DBft;  tag  Sifen,  ^lei,  ^upfer, 
3titn;  tag  2B,  S;  tag  55ummeln,  „X;ag  SBenn  unt  tia^  5l6er/'tag 
®ute,  tag  2Ca^re,  tag  ©djiine, 

Remakk. — So  many  rivers  are  feminine  because  they  are  compounded  with  -aha 
(  +  Lat.  aqua) :  2Beier  and  SBerra  <  Wesera(h),  Werraha;  bie  ®alja(c^).  But  notice  bet 
Dt^ein,  9)2ain.  ®ie  ©c^ioeii,  Sluvfei  have  the  article  really  on  account  of  their  exceptional 
gender.    American  rivers  are  masculine :  ber  A^ubjon,  bev  2KD:^anjf. 

161.     Gender  accordino  to  derivation  and  endings. 

1.  Masculine  are  : 

Most  monosyllables  by  ablaut,  e.  g.,  ter  (Spru(^,  @pro§,  @tic6, 
(Sd)irm ;  those  in  -cr,  -ler,  -ner  (denoting  agents) ;  in  -el  (denot- 
ing instrument) ;  all  in  -ling ;  many  in  -en ;  dissyllables  in  -e 
according  to  the  n-declension  (denoting  living  beings) ;  in  -ic^. 

Ex.:  ter  ©(^reiber,  ^iinfller,  ^fbrtner;  ter  Dedel,  ipebel,  ter  ?^remt^ 
ling,  ©unfiling,  ©dugling;  ter  @egen,  Degen;  corresponding  to 
Eng.  -om,  8ufen,  ^Sefenj  ter  ^na&e,  Sbwe,  33otej  ®anferic^,  S3iite^ 
rid),  gittic^. 

2.  Feminine  are: 

Many  dissyllables  (by  ablaut,  see  496)  in  -e ;  abstract  nouns 
in  -e,  mainly  from  adjectives  ;  in  -ie,  mostly  foreign;  many  in 


58  SYI^AX  OF  THE  GEKDER.  [162- 

-t;  all  in  -ei, -in, -un^, -l)eit, -feit,  -f(^aft:   some  in  -ni^  and 
-fal ;  foreign  ones  in  -age  (see  163,  5). 

Ex.:  tie  (Sjrb^e,  ^bk;  tie  (Sprac^e,  ®abe:  tie  ^^iIofopt)ie,  ®alan^ 
terie  ;  tie  ipaft,  ^3)Ia^t,  ^raft;  tie  Siigfi^fi/  3unfterei,  ^telotei;  tie 
Breuntin,  Secretin  ;  tie  ^ulDung,  Siitmung;  tie  greibeit,  grbmmig? 
!eit;  greuntfdjaft ;  tie  SBiltni^,  gaulni^j  tie  33tamage,  Sourage. 

3.  Neuter  are: 

All  in  -c^en,  -lein ;  most  in  -fel,  -fal,  -nii,  -turn ;  nearly  all  of 
the  form  ®e-e  or  ®e-  without  e;  some  in  -el. 

Ex.:  ta5  ipiint^en,  ^rtdblein ;  ta^  ^liitfel  UberHeibfel;  ta5  ©cfcicf^ 
fal,  Sabfal;  tag  ©etacfctnig,  55erma(^tmg;  ta5  ^bnigtum,  Sforiftentum 
(only  two  masc,  ter  9ieid)tum  and  3rt*tum);  taiJ  ©efilte,  ©emalte; 
tag  ®eHlt,  ^efd)i(f ;  tag  33iintel,  ©eftntel,  and  the  S.  G.  diminu- 
tives tag  Slintel,  33ii6el,  etc. 

On  the  whole  the  gender  of  nouns  has  changed  very  little  in  the  history  of  the  lan- 
guage. Ex.  of  changes  are:  bie  ©ttte  <  O.  H.  G.  der  situ,  already  M.  H.  G.  sometimes 
diu  site.  ®te  ^lume  was  O.  H.  G.  both  masc.  and  fem.  -®ie  gal^ne  was  O.  H.  G.  der 
fano. 

162.  The  following  groups  of  nouns  have  varying  genders, 
though  some  are  of  the  same  origin  and  have  the  same  mean- 
ing. They  should  be  fully  treated  in  the  dictionary,  to  which 
the  student  is  referred.  Only  a  few  examples  are  given  in 
each  group. 

Ist  group.  The  same  form  and  meaning,  but  double  gender  (m.  and 
n.) ;  ber  and  ba^  5Weter,  Ifiermome'tcr,  Sarome'tcr,  33ereid),  ©d)rccfen,  Beug,  etc. 

2d  group.  Double  gender  (m.  and  f.)  with  varying  forms,  but  the 
same  meaning  and  origin  :  ber  ©c^urj  —  bie  ©(|urjc;  ber  Jrupp  —  bicXruppe; 
ber  Oucll  —  bie  Cuelle ;  ber  ©palt  —  bie  (Spaltc. 

3d  group.  Double  gender,  the  same  form  in  sg.  and  pi.  if  the  plural 
be  formed  of  both  genders,  but  of  different  meaning  and  sometimes  of 
different  origin  (the  latter  with  *). 


163] 


GENDER  OF   FOREIGN   WORDS. 


59 


x\ll  adjectives :  ber  ®ute,   +   the  good  man  ;  bie  ®ute,  +   the  good 
woman ;  pi.  bie  ®uten* 


ber  ^eibe,  heathen 

bie  |)eibe,  heaih 

pi.  bie  ^eiben 

*ber  aSuEe,  bull 

bie  SBuUe  (document) 

bie  a3ullen 

ber  dxU,  heir 

baiJ  (£rbe,  inheritance 

bie  (Srben 

ber  S5erbien)l,  earnings 

i)H  2}erbientl»  desert,  merit 

bie  SJerbienflc 

*ber  ©etfcl/  hostage 

bie  ©eipel,  scourge 

bie  ®ei§eln 
-feln 

*ber  Wltfftx,  measurer 

ba«  9»eJTer,  knife 

bie  SJJeffer 

There  are  perhaps  forty  in  all, 

4cth  group.  Double  gender,  double  plural,  but  different  meaning  and 
sometimes  different  origin  (the  latter  marked  *).  Perhaps  a  dozen  or 
more. 


ber  33anb,  volume 
*ber  Wax^^,  march 

ber  (3d)ilb,  shield 
*ber  2:^or/  fool 


pi.  SBanbc 
Wldx\^t 
©c^ilbe 
Sl^oren 


ba^  SBanb,  ribbon 
bie  5Warf(f),  marsh 
ba^  <S^ilb,  sign-board 
ba^  S^or,  gate 


pi.  SBanber 
3)?arfd)en 
®(i)ilber 
%^oxt 


Gender  of  foreign  words. 

163.  Foreign  words  retain  generally  the  original  gender  : 
tie  ^ein  <  L.  poena,  later  pena  ;  Da^  ^lofter  <  L.  claustrum ; 
kr  Verier  <  L.  carcer(em). 

Many  have  changed  gender  for  various  reasons.  They  were 
fully  Germanized  and  followed  German  models  according  to 
ending  or  meaning,  or  they  folio  wed  French  (Romance)  rules. 
Some  changes  are  difficult  to  account  for. 

1.  Examples  of  neuter  nouns  that  became  masculine,  masculines  that  be- 
came neuter,  and  feminines  that  became  neuter :  btr  9)ala'j^»  <  palatium  ; 
ber  aSalfam,  <  balsamum ;  ber  SJiantcI,  <  mantellum  ;  ber  ^xtx^,  <  pre- 
tium  ;  ber  ^Junft,  <  punctum  Neuter  nouns  in  -at :  ba<3  ^onfula't,  <  con- 
sulatus  ;  ba(3  %x^xxaa.'t,  formatum  or -us;  ba«3  '3tu^,  <  V.  L.  riama  (f.) ;  ba^ 
^reujr  <  cruc{em)  (f ). 

2.  Examples  of  nouns  that  have  changed  gender  in  analogy  with  Ger- 
man words  similar  in  meaning  and  ending  :  ber  3iegel,  <  tegula ;  bet 


60  SYKTAX  OF  THE   GElfDER.  164- 

?Warmor,  marmor,  n.,  on  account  of  bcr  <3tcin  (see  160,  1) ;  ber  ^orper,  < 
corpus,  n.  ;  bcr  ^aba'vcr,  <  cadacer,  n.,  on  account  of  bcr  Seib,  bcr  Scid^* 
nam,  and  the  many  masculines  in  -cr;  bie  9?untmcr,  <  numerus,  since  tic 
Ba^L     ©uroHf  Sparta,  5tt^cn,  2:roia,  now  all  neuter  (see  160,  3). 

3.  Nouns  in  -arium,  -orium,  -erium,  -are,  became  all  masculine  in 
analogy  with  H.  G.  words  in  -er,  <  cere  <  ari :  ber  9((ta'r,  <  altare ;  ber 
teller,  <  cellarium ;  ber  3>falter,  <  psalterium ;  ber  SKet^er,  <  O.  H.  G. 
wiwdri  <  mvaritim  ;  ber  9)taf^er,  <  It.  piastra,  f.,  <  V.  L.  plastrum. 

4.  Neuter  nouns,  whose  plural  ended  in  -a  in  Gr.  or  L.,  became 
feminine  in  German  from  analogy  with  feminines  in  -e,  <  a,  and  also 
through  Romance  influence :  tic  S3tt>el,  <  biblion,  V.  L.  biblia  ;  bie  Drgel, 
<  organum,  -a ;  bie  5)friinbc,  <  V.  L.  provenda  (pi.)  ;  bie  (Stubie,  < 
studium ;  bie  ^Jr^JntC/  <  prcemivm. 

5.  Words  in  -a'ge,  masculine  and  feminine  in  French,  are  all  feminine 
in  G.,  e.  g.,  bie  SBaga'ge,  bie  S3Iama'ge,  bie  Soura'ge,  etc.  Die  ©c^rift,  <  scrip- 
turn,  bie  ^Jac^t,  <  pactum^  are  due  to  analogy  with  G.  nouns  in  -t,  viz., 

bie  ^rac^t,  <^\^i,  ©c^id^t,  SKac^t,  etc. 

Gender  of  compound  nouns. 

164.  Compound  nouns  have  the  gender  of  the  last  noun : 
ter  53lrn6aum,  fcic  Jpau^tpr,  ta^  @(^ilterl)au5,  ta^  grauenaimmer 
(lady). 

Exceptions  v  a.  Many  compounds  with  -mut  t  bie  ©emut,  bie  SBe^mut, 
bie  ©anftntut;  but  ber  |)0(^mut,  ber  ?5reimut,  etc.  They  are,  however,  only 
seeming  exceptions,  -mut  going  back  to  compounds  with  O.  H.  G.  and 
M  H.  G.  -muot,  m ,  and  -muoti,  f.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  double 
gender  of  the  same  noun:  O.^.Qi.  hohmuoti,  f.  only,  but  M.  H.  G. 
Tiochmuete,  hochmuot,  f.,  and  Jiochmuot,  m.  ;  bie  Demut,  <  M.  H.  G. 
diemuete,  diemuot,  always  feminine:  ber  ^leinmut,  bie  9lnmut,  bie  ©ropmut; 
also  ber  ®ro§mut;  always  ber  ^0(^mut»  For  Slrmut,  which  is  no  compound 
with  -mut,  see  511,  2,  a. 

h.  2)tr  STbfd^eu  seems  an  exception,  because  bie  ©c^eu  is  old  and  more 
common  than  ber  <S(^eu. 

c.  Names  of  cities  and  places  are  neuter  even  if  ending  in  nouns  of 
different  gender  :  ba«  fc^one  |>amburc|,  J^iineBurg,  Slnnaberg,  etc. ;  but  bie  2Bart^ 
burg,  ^crrenburg,  because  these  are  castles,  =  33ur9eH,  f.,  and  not  towns. 


168]  CONCORD   OF   GENDERS.  61 

d.  !Der  SP?itttt)oc|  (3Bo(i)e,  f.)  appears  by  the  side  of  the  legitimate  bie 
9)?itttt)0(^,  already  in  M.  H.  G.  It  has  followed  the  other  days  of  the 
week,  which  are  all  masculine.     (See  160,  1). 

e.  !Die  5(nttt)ort  had  double  gender  in  0.  H.  G.,but  the  neuter  was 
more  common.    Luther  has  still  bie  and  ba^  3lntn)ort. 

Concord  of  genders. 

165.  This  subject  can  be  best  treated  under  the  head  of 
concords  as  between  noun  and  adjective,  noun  and  pronoun, 
subject  and  predicate.  The  general  rule  that  adjectives  and 
pronouns  take  the  grammatical  gender  of  the  noun  to  which 
they  refer  is  only  set  aside  when  the  grammatical  gender  does 
not  coincide  with  the  sex.  In  that  case  the  pronoun  or  adjec- 
tive can  take  the  natural  gender. 

166.  3)?abc^en,  9J?agblein,  Setb,  f^raulein  admit  of  this  construction  ac- 
cording to  the  sense,  most  commonly ;  not  so,  ^inb,  Srauenjimmer,  iDJdnn= 
lein,  (So^nlein,  and  the  other  diminutives  ;  Unb  fd)nett  wax  il^re  ©^ur  ijerloren, 
foklb  ba(3  5D'?ab(^en  Stbf^ieb  na^m  (Sch.).  SeneiJ  QJicibc^en  ij!^^,  bas?  »ertrtcbene, 
bic  bu  gewa^It  ^afl  (H.  and  D.,  IV.  210).  2)u  geknebeietc  untcr  bett  2Betbern(B.). 
<Sie  un^liicflic^er.  <Sic  ungliirflic^e,  you  unhappy  man,  woman.  The  adjective 
therefore  also  agrees  with  the  sex. 

i^rciulein  and  the  diminutives  of  names  of  females  have  wbie''  sometimes 
in  colloquial  language  :  bie  ^rciulein,  bie  ®o))^te'd)en»  bie  2)Drt(^en  (Dorothy). 
But  «3^re  ^rciulein  %od)ttx"  is  quite  common  and  correct :  S^re  i^raulein 
Soc^ter  .  .  .  war  au^SgelaJTen  (unrestrained)  (G.). 

167.  Names  in  the  predicate,  not  capable  of  forming  a  feminine  from 
a  masculine,  like  Ce^rerin  <  Center,  35or)tet)ertrt  <  SSorfle^er,  of  course  retain 
the  grammatical  gender,  no  matter  what  the  sex  of  the  subject :  <Sie 
warb  .  ,  .  gleic^  mit  befonberer  5[d)tun9  aU  ®a)l  be^anbelt  (G.).  But  even  pre- 
dicate nouns  capable  of  forming  a  feminine  by  suflBx  if  used  in  the  ab- 
stract sense,  and  not  the  personal,  form  an  exception,  e.  g.,  ^txx,  5)?et)ler  fein 
or  werben,  "  to  be  or  become  master  of."  2)enn  x^  Hn  eucr  ^onig  (Sch.). 
©ie  war  ber  ©erhec^er  (id.). 

168.  The  neuter  pronouns  (e^,  jete^,  ia^,  aHe^,  etc.)  may  refer 
to  a  masc.  or  fem.  noun,  even  to  the  plural  and  to  a  masc.  and 


62  SYI!n:AX   OF  NUMBER.  [169- 

fern,  noun  together :  ©ie  !ommen  ^er»or  ein  2CctB  ba,  ein  Wlann 
.  .  .  ta5  re:!t  nun,e«  iritt  fid)  erge^en  fogleic^,  tic  ^nbi^el  gur  9iunre, 
=  they  stretch  their  bones  for  the  dance,  eager  to  enjoy  them- 
selves (in  Goethe's  ^Jotcntang").  Stiles  rennet,  rettet,  flud^tet  (Sch.). 
Ta  mag  tenn  ©d^merj  nnl  ®enu§,  ®elingen  unt  33ertrn5  mtt  einanler 
a^e^feln  trie  e^  fann  (F.  1756-8).  (Stillfd^njeigenl)  bbrten  pe  (three 
persons)  3U,  intern  jete5  in  fi^  felbfl  3urucffel)rte  (G.). 

169.  When  adjectives  are  used  substantively,  the  mascu- 
line and  feminine  denote  sex,  the  neuter  an  abstract  noun  or 
thing :  ter  ®ute,  tie  ®ute,  the  good  man,  woman;  ta^  ^uk,  the 
good  (abstract),  ^omm^  ^erab,  0  ^olte  ®cf)bne,  unt  i?erla§  tein 
ftolse^  ®^Io§  (Sch.).  tn  ^aft  Jperrli^Cw^  ijottbra^t  (id.).  I^a^  Sijfe, 
ta^  ic^  nicbt  mill,  ta^  t^ue  icb  (B.). 


SYNTAX    OF   SINGULAR   AND    PLURAL. 

170.  Names  of  persons  and  materials  can  take  a  plural 
only  when  they  denote  several  persons,  species,  or  kinds,  viz., 
tie  ^einricbe,  tic  33crt|a^,  tic  Die  (the  various  kinds  of  oil),  tie 
®rdfer,  tic  %ettc,  tie  ©alge. 

171.  Abstract  nouns  do  not  as  a  rule  admit  of  a  plural, 
but  as  in  English  the  plurals  of  such  nouns  were  once 
quite  common,  viz.,  SRinne,  (^nate,  Sonne,  ^utt,  S^re,  Some 
of  these  plurals  are  left  in  certain  phrases:  in  (SBren,  gu  (Ebren ; 
»on  ®otte^  ®naten  ;  ju  <SWten  fommcn  lajfcn,  to  be  guilty  of; 
SttJ.  ®naten  ;  tie  ^errfd^aften.  Compare  Eng.  thanks,  loves  (in 
Shakspere),  favors,  regards. 

172.  To  the  eg.  -mam  in  composition  corresponds  often  -Icutc,  pi. 
only,  which  in  sense  really  corresponds  to  9)?enfc^,  3)?en|'Acn,  without  regard 
to  sex.  Examples :  Sbelmann  —  ©beUcutc,  gentry  ;  Sanbmann,  peasant,  — 
Sanbleute,  country  folk  :  (S^emann,  married  man,  —  Sbclcutc,  married  people ; 
but  the  pi  (Sbcmanner  means  "  married  men  "  ;  ^^ubrmann  —  j^ul}rleiitc,  driv- 
ers, carters  ;  ^aufmann  —  ^aufleute,  merchants,  etc.     But  ^tcbcvmann,  hbn- 


177]  SYNTAX   OF   SINGULAR  AND   PLURAL.  63 

est  man  ;  S^renmann^  man  of  honor ;  (Btaat^mann,  and  a  few  more,  form 
only  tlie  regular  plural  in  -er. 

173.  For  certain  nouns  which  form  no  plural,  plural  compounds  are 
used,  some  of  which  have  also  a  singular. — E.g. : 

ba^  i^euer  bie  ^^eueri^brunjlc 

ber  3;ob  bie  2;obe(3fdlIc 

bcr  9Jat  bie  9ftatfc()lage 

ber  Danf  bie  ©anffagungen 

174.  Nouns  only  used  in  the  plural  are  : 

a.  Diseases :  33Iattcrn;  ?Kafcrn,  9i5teln. 

l.  Certain  dates :  Djlern,  ^^ftngjlen,  2Bei^nac^ten,  f^erien,  ^afleit,  in  Sodden 
—  in  childbed. 

c.  Names  of  relationship  :  Sttern;  ®etriiber,  brothers,  as  ©eOriiber  ®rimm, 
the  brothers  Grimm,  but  generally  only  in  the  names  of  firms  ;  ®efd)tuifter, 
brothers  and  sisters,  rarely  in  the  sg.  =  brother  and  sister  ;  other  nouns 
as  ®efilbe,  3mfeit,  Srieffc^aften,  ©infunfte,  etc. 

175.  Masc.  and  neuter  nouns  denoting  quantity,  weight, 
extent,  preceded  by  numerals,  stand  in  the  singular,  but  fern, 
nouns  (except  ^^ar!)  in  the  plural  as  in  Eng.,  e.g.,  G  ®lai?  53ier, 
10  ^af  2Bein;  „an  ^ie  Creimal  :^unljerttau[ent)  9}Jann"  (Song  of  Prince 
Eugene),  5  gu§  tier',  3  3)Zar!  70  ^fennig(e),  70  x  7  ==  fiekngig 
mal  fieSen  mal  (B.).  Feminines  :  3  ?!HeiIen  breit,  10  g(afd)en  ^ort^ 
\Qnn,  12  ®tunten»  The  coins,  ta^  '^oX)x,  ter  ?i)^onat,  (S(^ritt  gener- 
ally stand  in  the  plural,  e.  g.,  50  ^fennige  madden  5  @ro]*d)cn, 
3  Dufaten,  20  @d)ritte  lang;  yet  also  sing.,  „90  S^^r — geMdt  jum 
2:ote";  7  ^JOftonat(e)  alt;  but  jet^n  mart 

176.  In  older  German  the  plural  was  used  in  all  genders  just  as  in 
Eng.  That  the  singular  was  ever  used  came  from  the  analogy  of  masc. 
nouns  and  "  diu  marc"  with  the  neuter  nouns,  in  all  of  which  sing,  a^id 
pi.  would  not  he  distinguished.  See  431,  2.  The  fem.  of  the  n-declen- 
sion  never  followed  this  analogy.  For  ^^lann  see  59.  Compare  the  Eng. 
"a  ten-year-old  boy,"  now  colloquial.  "  Year"  is  an  old  plural  just  like 
3af)r.     In  the  D.  pi.  the  coins,  etc.,  in  175  almost  always  have  en. 

177.  Notice  the  use  of  the  singular  in  German  for  English  plural  in 


64  SYNTAX  OF  THE  CASES.  [178- 

such  phrases  as :  unter  bent  toicrten  unb  fiinften  ®rabc  norbIi(^er  33reite  (Hu.) ; 
bcr  erfle  unb  ber  fitnfte  35erd  tvurbe(n)  gefungen;  bie  brei  ©(^iiler  miiiTen  jur  ©trafc 
bie  ^anb  ouf  ben  2)?unb  Icgen;  stele  ^aben  bad  2eben  »erlorem  many  lives  were 
lost  or  many  lost  their  lives. 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  CASES. 
Nominative. 

178.  The  nominative  is  the  case  of  the  subject  and  of 
direct  address:  SJieiit  greunt,  He  3ftten  ter  3>ergan{|enbeit  jinD  un^ 
ein  33u(^  mtt  fteten  ©iegeln  (F.  575-6).  '^it  eucb,  ^err  doctor,  ju 
fpajieren  tft  e^ren^oll  unt)  ift  ®eminn  (F.  941).     Absolute  N.  297. 

179.  Neuter  verbs  and  verbs  in  the  passive  voice  which 
govern  two  accusatives  in  the  active,  are  construed  with  a 
predicate  nominative.     See  270. 

Such  are  :  1.  Sein,  werben,  bleiben,  bunfen,  f(f)etnen,  '^ei§en  (to  be  called), 
gelten,  n>o(^fen,  fterben,  etc.:  "Dcd  ^tinniel^  gugungen  ftnb  immer  bie  be|len  (Le.). 
Sitter  Sob  »irb  neued  2e6en  (He.).  Sr  wtrb  ein  grower  ^^rinj  bid  an  fein  (Snbc 
fd)einen  (Sch.).  T>ai  attein  macht  fc^on  ben  3Beifen,  ber  jic^  ieber  biinft  ju  fein(Le.). 
These  verbs  denote  a  state  or  transition.  Preceded  by  aid  the  construc- 
tion may  be  called  an  apposition  :  Slflein  er  |larb  aU  S&rift  (F.  2953).  3^ 
fomme  aU  ®efanbter  bed  ®erid)td  (Sch.).  (£r  gilt  aU  ctn  reid^er  ?Wann,  =  He 
passes  for  .  .  . 

2.  Verbs  of  calling,  thinking,  making,  choosing,  scolding,  viz., 
genannt,  gebad)t,  angefe^cn,  gemad)t,  betrac^tet,  gcn?ablt>  gefd)oltcn  wcrben,  and 
others:  SBil^elm  »on  Dranien  n)irb  ber  <S(f)n)eiger  genannt,  2Dill)elm  »on  bet 
!Rormanbie,  ber  ©roberer.  Sr  warb  ein  !Dieb  gcfAolten,  aid  ein  laugcnid^W 
betrac^tet.    3(^  barf  mic^  nic^t  bed  ©liidfed  Siebling  fdjelten  (Korner). 

Genitive. 

180.  Tlie  genitive  is  used  chiefly  as  the  complement  of 
nouns  and  adjectives,  but  also  of  the  verb  (object).  The  gen- 
itive with  nouns  expresses  the  most  varied  relations.  The 
principal  ones  are  briefly  given  and  illustrated  below.  Ger- 
man does  not  differ  from  other  languages. 


131]  SYliTTAX   OF  THE   CASES — GENITIVE.  65 

1.  G.  of  origin,  cause,  authorship,  relationship  :  t)aS  SBunber  ijl  be^ 
®Iaukn^  liebflc^  ^inb  (F.  766).    ©oet^e^  ^m%    2)tc  Sriid^te  be^  S3aume^. 

2.  Subjective  O.:  t)\i  Siebe  ©otte^,  trcld^c  I)6^cr  t|l  benn  allc  35ernunft  (B.). 
2)er  ©efang  ber  23ogeU     2)a«  i)l  ber  ^ampf  ber  9)ferbe  unb  i^ifct)c  (Hu.). 

3.  Objective  O.:  ^cr  Slnblid  biefer  ©egenb  (Hu.).  2)ie  Srfinbung  ber  S3ud)^ 
bru(ferfun|l. 

The  personal  pronoun  is  rarely  found  in  this  construction.  Instead  ol 
wbie  Siebc  fciner"  stands  bie  Stebc  ju  i^m,  gcgcn  i^n. 

4.  Possessive  G  :  Dci3  i5atum«3  unjtc^tbare  f)anb  (Scli.).  2)cr  ©arten  bc(3 
^onig^.  Doc^  beffer  \]V^,  xljx  faflt  in  ®otte«  |)anb  al^  in  (btc)  ber  9)lcnff^en  (Sch.), 
Sometimes  the  possessive  pronoun  is  put  after  the  G.  in  colloquial  lan- 
guage. Lessing  has  it  several  times :  2)a^  fd^ien  ber  alten  Slrtijlen  i§i 
®cfd>macE  nic^t  ju  fein  (Le.).    See  242,  2. 

5.  G.  of  quality  or  characteristic :  Der  Sungling  eblen  ©efii^Ie^  (H.  and 
D.,  IV.  66). 

This  G.  and  the  preceding  stand  also  in  the  predicate  after  neuter 
verbs :  ©elig  ftnb,  bie  reined  ^erjeni^  ftnb  (B.).  Siner  SJJeinun^  fein;  bed  Slobed 
[ein.  Sin  folc^er  SBafferjlanb  roax  alfo  e  i  n  e  d  STtterC  ntit  ben  ro^en  Denfmdiern 
menf(^lic^en  ^unfijTet^ed  (Hu.). 

6.  Appositim  or  specifying  G.:  !Der  f^e^ler  bed  Slrgiro'btt^;  fe<^^  Safier  ber 
3:runffud)t;  bie  <Sunbe  ber  Unbanfbarfeit.     ^arl  erbielt  ben  SSeinamen  bed  ®ro§en. 

This  G.  and  that  of  characteristic  are  frequently  supplanted  by  »on  + 
Dative  :  Sine  (£id)e  «on  ^o^em  Sitter  ir»urbe  »om  58Ii^e  getroffen.  2)ieb  »on  (etnem) 
S3ebienten;  3;eufel  »on  SGBeibe  (Le.).     See  Prepositions,  303,  15. 

7.  Partitive  G.,  dependent  upon  nouns  of  quantity,  weight,  measure; 
with  numerals,  various  pronouns ;  comparative  and  superlative.     Ex.  : 

%\)nt  nic^td  {=  no  matter).  Sr  (ber  3J?antel)  f)at  ber  Sropfen  nte^r  (Le.).  9?un  Der 
33efd)etben^cit  genug  (id.).  2)em  reic^te  fte  ber  ®aben  befle,  ber  Slunten  afferfc^onfle 
bar  (Sch.).  i^itnf  unferd  Drbend  waren  fc^on  ...  bed  fii^nen  5P?uted  Dpfcr 
worben  (id.).  2afft  mir  ben  be|len  93ed5er  SBeind  in  i^urcm  ®olbe  reic^cn  (G.).  :Du 
fc^lugfl  bid)  bur(^  ntit  ^unbert  a^tjig  9)?ann  bur(^  i^rer  3:aufenb  (Sch.).  Unfer  eincr 
fann  ftd)  bad  nic^t  leifien,  =  "  One  like  (of)  us  cannot  afford  that." 

181.  In  the  spoken  language  and  also  in  the  classics  (excepting 
poetry)  this  partitive  G.  has  passed  into  mere  apposition  ;  especially 
after  nouns  of  weight,  measure  ;  after  numerals  ;  after  ntd)tdf  nic^t,  and 
the  indefinite  pronouns.  Ex. :  (Sin  '3)funb  S^ce ;  brei  ©cbeffel  .^orn.  Stttjad 
^c^oned,  nidjtd  33ofed|  sicl  ®uted  are  no  longer  felt  as  genitives.     The  adjec- 


66  SYNTAX   OP  THE   CASES — GENITIVE.  [182- 

tive  used  as  noun  is  governed  independently  of  the  pronoun  or  numeral. 
Ex. :  Beigt  ta^  serfalfc^te  S3latt  nid)t,  man  tt)ollc  ju  nic^ta  ®utem  un^  serMnben  ? 
(Sch.).  2)a^  fijmtte  ju  ttxoa^  <S(f)rec!lic^em  futyren  (id.).  From  Luther  to  Lessing 
this  G.  is  still  quite  frequent,  and  it  still  remains  in  certain  phrases,  e.  g., 
^ier  ill  meine^  ©leibensg  nld)t,  "  I  cannot  stay  here."  25iel  Sluf^eben^  ntad)en, 
"  to  make  much  ado."  9Benn  id^  mit  9)ienfd)en==  unb  mit  Sngeljungcn  rebete  unb 
l^atte  bet  Ciebe  ntc^t  .  ♦  .  (B.), literally  "and  had  nought  of  charity."  It  ie 
supplanted  by  X)On,  au^,  unter  +  D.  See  Prepositions,  303.  2Ber  »on  uiii?, 
untcr  un0  ? 

Genitive  Dependent  upon  Adjectives. 

182.  It  stands  after  adjectives  denoting  possession  and 
interest  or  lack  and  want;  fulness  or  emptiness;  knowledge  or 
ignorance;  desire  or  disgust;  guilt  or  innocence;  e.  g.,  fa^ig, 
*^at^aft,  ftc^er,  teil^afttg,  unfat^tg ;  6ar,  *Io5 ;  *»ofl,  *fatt,  leer,  quitt, 
»erluftig;  funttg,  *gett)a^r,  unfuntig;  *mute,  kj^iertg;  fcfcultig,  lettg, 
etc.  Ex.:  T)e^  langen  ^ater^  miite  (Bii.).  Xc^  Sei^e^  bift  tu  lerig 
(id.).  I)eg  ®eri*t3  fAulttg  (B.).  (^pengfte)  kgierig  te3  ^Stalled  (H. 
and  D.,  VI.  313).  (Bie  ftni)  ^oH  fiifen  SBetn^  (B.).  T;u  bijl  e^  toc^ 
^ufrieren,  Slitter  ?  (Le.). 

183.  The  adjectives  marked  *  and  others  not  given  admit  also  of 
the  accusative.  In  the  last  illustration  «ed"  was  felt  as  A.,  and  therefore 
wba^"  is  much  more  common.  See  Pronouns,  199, 3.  B.  g.,  3(^  bin  ba^ 
fatt,  miibc,  "  I  have  enough  of  it,"  "  am  tired  of  it." 

The  prepositions  nad),  »on,  etc.,  +  D.  frequently  supplant  the  geni- 
tive, e.g.,  wbcgierig  nac^  bem  ©taHe"  would  be  commoner;  »ott,  rein  fein  »on 
etroa^. 

Genitive  after  Verbs. 

184.  It  may  stand  as  nearer  object,  as  remoter  object,  and 
adverbially. 

As  direct  object  after  verbs  with  meanings  similar  to  the 
adjectives  in  182;  also  ad^tcn,  ivartcn,  tanen,  fpetten,  lad>en,  fctonen 
geniepen,  ftcrben,  pflcgen,  tcnfcn,  Jjercjcjycn,  lol)nen,  i)crfet)kn,  braudjcn, 
and  others. 


187]  SYNTAX   OF  THE   CASES — GENITIVE.  67 

Ex.  :  2)aa  SJergifmetnnl^t.  3(^  benfe  bein  (G.).  ■^unger^  flerkn.  T)a^  lo'^nt 
ber  W\i\)Z  m6)t,  =  It  is  not  worth  the  trouble.  6§  [inb  nid^t  atte  fret  bie 
i^rer  ^etten  fpotten  (Le.).   ®ehaud)tber  3eit»  fie  ge^t  fo  fc^nell  »on  ^tnnen  (P.  1908). 

185.  After  verbs  governing  an  A.  of  the  person  the  G.  of 
the  thing  stands  as  remoter  object,  such  as  judicial  verbs,  those 
with  privative  meaning,  verbs  of  emotion ;  after  many  reflexive 
verbs  with  meanings  similar  to  the  adjectives  iu  182,  e.g.,  jeit^en, 
^er!Iagen,frcifprec^en,  befi^ultigen,  6erau6en,  entlaten,  entlaffen,  entbiuten, 
uberl)e6en,  ^erftd^ern,  belel)ren,  mat)nen,  and  others  ;  fid)  frcuen,  Better 
tien,  erinnern,  f(^dmen,  kflctfen,  erfrei^en,  ft(^  tt?e^ren. 

Ex.  :  ©nttafft  mtc^  mciner  5l^nerH3rok,  x6)  trill  eu(^  eurer  wteberum  entlaffen 
(La).  2Ber  fann  mic^  einer  ©unbe  jei|)en  ?  (B.).  3emanb  be(3  2anbe^  vermeifcn  ; 
eine(3  SSerbrei^en!^  anflagen,  iiberfu^ren,  etc.  ©ntfc^Iage  bic^  aUcr  fc^tr-arJien  ®ebanfen 
(Le.).  T)u  barfil  hi^  beiner  2Ba^I  ntc^t  fcl)anien  (Sch.).  But  many  of  these  gen- 
itives are  supplanted  by  auf,  iikr  +  A.,  and  by  A.  alone. 

186.  Certain  impersonal  verbs  expressing  feelings,  which 
are  construed  with  the  A.  of  the  person  feehng  and  with  the 
G.  of  the  cause  and  object  of  the  feehng. 

Ex.  :  (£<3  efelt  ntt^,  e*^  reut,  erkrmt,  jammert,  »erbrie§t  mxci) ;  e^  lo^nt  ftc^. 
2)arob  erbarmt  ben  ^trtert  bc(3  alten  ^otjen  ^crrn  (Uh.).  Unb  ha  cr  ha.^  SSolf  fak, 
jammerte  i^n  beffelHgen  (B.).  But  the  nominative  supplants  here  the  A.  of 
the  person,  and  the  A.  the  G.  in  the  spoken  language  as  a  rule;  ^e^"  was 
again  felt  as  A.  See  183.  Ex.:  2)a<3  gereut  mic^,  bauert  mic^.  Der  ®ere4)te 
erkvmt  fic^  fcine^  23ie^ei3  (B.). 

Adverbial  Genitive. 

187.  It  expresses  place,  time,  manner,  and  other  adverbial 
relations. 

Ex.:  Place:  linfer  |)anb,  rerf)ter  ^attb,  aller  Drtem  "everywhere."     ^s^ 
moc^te  (it  is  not  likely  that  .  .  .)  biefe^  SBege^  fobalb  nti^t  tuteber  fommcn  (Le.). 
Time  :  biefer  Zaci^t,  beg  3lknb<3,  ,M^  SDJorgensJ  in  ber  %xut!t." 
Manner:    trocEnen  i^u§e^,  dry-shod;    |lel)enben  %u^i^,  immediately;  »er^ 
niinftiger  ©eife,  reasonably,     ©ie  famen  unt>errid)teter  ^adjt  inxM,  they  re- 
turned without  having  accomplished  their  object. 


68  SYITTAX   OF   THE   CASES — DATIVE.  [188- 

A  large  number  of  these  genitives  have  passed  into  adverbs,  e.  g.,  flug^, 
For  genitive  after  Prepositions,  see  302. 

Genitive  in  Exclamations. 

188.  Interjections  are  followed  by  a  genitive  only  when  it 
denotes  the  cause  or  occasion  of  the  exclamation.  35>oM  and 
nje^(e)  have  often  a  dative  of  the  person  and  a  genitive  of  cause 
or  origin :  O  teg  B^anjofen,  ter  feinm  3Serftant,  fctefes  ju  iiberlegen, 
fetn  iper^  tiefeg  ju  fii^len  o^t1ii(iU  ^at  (Le.).  D  U^  ©liidli^en,  tern  eg 
»ergbnnt  ift,  e  i  n  e  Suft  mit  euA  ju  atmen  (Sch.). 

Dative. 

189.  It  is  the  case  of  the  indirect  object,  less  remote  than 
the  genitive.  The  nearer  object  can  also  stand  in  the  dative, 
but  is  more  remote  than  the  nearer  object  (the  direct  one)  in 
the  accusative. 

190.  The  dative  stands  as  nearer  object  after  intransitive 
verbs  denoting:  1,  approach  and  removal,  similarity  and  dis- 
similarity; 2,  pleasure  and  displeasui'e;  3,  advantage  and  dis- 
advantage; 4,  command  and  obedience;  5,  yielding  and  re- 
sistance ;  6,  belonging  to,  agreement,  trust,  etc.  A  large 
number  of  these  verbs  are  compounds,  viz.,  those  with  ent- 
»er-,  ab-,  an-,  auf-,  bei-,  ein-,  mig-,  nacb-,  »or-,  »oran-,  iriter-, 
ju-,  and  those  with  noun,  adjective,  or  adverb:  leit  tbun,  n?ot}l< 
ttJoUen,  fauer  iDertcn,  jujtatten  fommen,  ireig  madden,  gu  tcK  ivcrtcn,  tag 
JOort  reten,  "to  defend,''  etc.  1,  na^cn,  nad^^c^cn,  kge^ncn, 
glei(^en,  a^ncln,  jufeben,  entfprcd^cn,  fet^Icn,  enti^cben,  nad>ftebcn;  2, 
gefallen,  tanfen,  geniigen,  bebacjen,  I'ulrigcn,  mi§faUen,  jdMtieicbcIn,  lajfcn 
(to  look),  tro^en,  groden,  flucben;  3,  klfen,  mi^en,  tienen,  beiftet)en, 
frommen,  nje^ien,  fd^aten ;  4,  pebicten,  bcfeblen,  bbren,  (^eborcbcn,  fclgcn ; 
5,  ireic^en,  trillfa^ren,  witcrftcben,  iritcrftrcbcn,  trot^cn ;  6,  antivertcn, 
emictem,  gebijren,  eignen,  bciftimmcn,  jureten,  trauen,  glauben,  ijer^ 
traucn. 


194]  SYNTAX   OF  THE  CASES — DATIVE.  69 

Ex.  :  2)ea  Sekn«  ungemifc^le  greube  trarb  feinem  ©terblic^en  p  teil  (Sch.). 
©traflofe  ^rei^eit  fpric^t  ben  ©itten  ^o^n  (id.).  Du  rebe|l  i^m  ba^  2Bort,  anilatt 
il)n  an?,uflagen  (id.).  Da^  ©te^en  Wirb  i^m  faucr,  It  is  hard  work  for  him  to 
stand.  1.  Du  glei^tl  bem  &ti]t,  ben  bu  begreifit,  ni^t  mir  (:F.  512).  Da^  jwingl^ 
bu  i^r  (ber  S^atur)  ni(^t  at)  mit  ^ebeln  unb  mit  ©c^rauben  (F.  675).  2.  (£inem 
Strte  ld§t  nic^ta  iibler  aU  9?eugicrbe  (Le.),  Nothing  looks  worse  in  a  host  than 
curiosity,  ©o  fluc^'  id)  aUm,  wa^  bie  @ecle  mit  2ocf^  unb  ©aufclwcrf  umfpannt 
(F.  1587).  2)er  2anb»ogt  grollte  bem  JeO.  3.  (Sie)  we^ret  ben  ^naben,  she 
restrains  the  boys  (Sch.).  2)er  ^nappe  folgt  bem  9litter.  ®ott  ^llft  benen,  bic 
rtt^  felber  ^elfcn.  4.  ©ott  ic^  ge^crd)en  ienem  Drang?  (F.  631).  1)it  folgft  mir 
bo*  balb  nac^  (Sch.).  ©e^orft  bu  bir  ?  (id.).  5.  Unb  bie  ®ebilbe  ber  9?ac^t  »ei(^en 
bem  tagenben  Sic^t  (id.).  2Bo^l  mx^t  bu,  bap  ic^  beinem  Born  nic^t  tro^e  (id.).  6. 
'Xraue,  [c^aue  went.  S©em  eignet  ®ott  (Le.),  To  whom  does  God  belong,  — 
Who  possesses  him  exclusively  ?  Compound  verbs :  3c^  ^a^^  bir  nic^t 
nac^geileflt  (F.  1426).  ©e^r  gem  ]U\)t  ^axM  bem  ?Diini')ler  na(^  (Sch.).  D>ie 
^onigin  [a^  bem  ^ampfe  p  (id.). 

191.  After  transitive  verbs  the  indirect  object  stands  in 
the  dative  and  the  direct  in  the  accusative  (see  198) :  ^erbiide 
mir  ta^  ivo^ente  ©errange  (F.  61).  Xa^  SJlenf^enredJt,  ta^  i^m 
^Jhtur  sergonut  (F.  136). 

192.  A  dative  still  farther  removed  from  the  verb  is  the 
ethical  dative,  or  dative  of  interest  (on  the  part  of  the  speaker 
or  hearer).     It  is  generally  a  personal  pronoun. 

Ex.:  ®ebt  mir,  nic^t^  wetter  ba^on  (Sch.),  "Go,  I  tell  you,  no  more  of 
that."  5D?ir  ^u  I'tebe,  for  love  of  nie.  3^m  ju  S^ren.  (®ie)  finb  bir  gar 
lorfere,  leic^te  ©efetten  (Sch.).     2)ie  U^r  fii)lagt  feinem  ®litcflid)en  (id.). 

193.  After  impersonal  verbs:  e5  afent,  MkH,  efcit,  (^e^t,  febit, 
gebrtd^t,  e^  gt'aut,  graufet,  geltngt,  Uegt  (tntr)  an  d)i)^a^,  fommt  (mir.  auf 
ettva^)  an,  [(tautert,  fcfctrintelt,  traiimt,  ^iemt,  and  many  verbs  in 
190  can  be  counted  here  :  Xem  53ater  graufet'^  (G.).  d^  liecjt 
mir  »iel  tiaran,  I  care  much  for  it.  3)em  ^aifer  n?art»'^  fauer  in 
^i^'  unb  in  ^alte  (Bu.). 

Dative  after  Adjectives. 

194.  Those  have  meanings  similar  to  the  verbs  in  190, 
e.  g.,  an^enel)m,  at)n(ic^,  fig^H/  ftnnt),  foigfam,  tienftbar,  gndtig,  t)olt), 


70  SYNTAX   OF   THE   CASES — DATIVE.  [195- 

naAteitig,  ijerbunren,  jutraglid),  Ex.:  Xai  fie^t  ii)m  aUM,  = 
that's  like  him.  'Hu&j  wax  lex  Stnfang  it)ren  ©iinf^en  :^olD  (Sch.). 
'Bit  meiften  )mt  mir  jugetfean  (id.),  "devoted." 

195.  Substitution  of  preposition  -|-  case,  both  after  verbs 
and  adjectives. 

%Vix,  ouf,  an,  gegen,  uber  +  accusative,  ntit  and  »oit  +  dative  may  replace 
the  dative  :  Sd^  jiime  auf  bi(^,  ic^  glaube  an  bic^,  »ertraue  auf  i^n;  Ibin  freunbli(6 
gegen  bie  Slrmen.    2)er  5lnjug  (suit)  i|l  fe^r  paffenb  fitr  hi^,  etc. 

196.  Verbs  with  unsettled  constructions. 

With  a  number  of  verbs  usage  is  either  unsettled  or  the  classics  still 
show  two  cases,  while  the  spoken  language  has  settled  upon  one,  e.  g., 
now  only  e^  baud)t  mir,  but  ti  bitnft  mic^,  classics  have  D.  or  A.  after  either. 
®lauben  with  D.  only,  or  an  +  A.;  but  F.  3438:  M)  glaub'  i^n  (®ott)  m(^t. 
(£^  efelt  mir  and  mid).  ^<xxi  bejat)lt  ben  ^nec^t  (person),  ba^  33rot  (thing),  bem 
SBacfer  ba(3  S3rot.     3cb  rufe  bir,  I  call  out  to  you  ;  id)  rufe  bi(^,  I  call  you,  etc. 

197.  The  few  reflexive  verbs  after  which  the  reflexive  pro- 
noun stands  in  the  dative  are  really  transitive  verbs,  and  the 
pronoun  is  the  indirect  object:  (Sr  tiltct  fic^  ctauiJ  cin,  "  he  imag- 
ines -sometliing,"  "is  conceited.*'  3*  ^^^H  ntir  fcbmeic^eln  (Le.); 
but  see  190,  sub  2:  3<^  ^^^^^  n^ir  tie  ^a6>i  fo. 

Accusative. 

198.  The  accusative  is  the  case  of  the  direct  object  after 
transitive  verbs,  including  many  inseparable  compounds  of 
intransitive  verbs  with  be-,  ent-,  er-  i)er-,  ger-,  l\xx6^-,  Winter-, 
liber-,  unter-,  urn-  »o(I-,  mteter-;  such  as  befal)ren,  befolgen,  be? 
fcudMen,  entfraften,  entfd>eiten,  erfa()ren,  erfintcn,  ^er[a(ten,  ijertreiben, 
jerftreuen,  tur(^fe'geln,  btnterge'^en,  iiterfe'^en,  umge'ben,  ttoUbri'uijen, 
njieter^o'len. 

Ex.:  %x  fc^t  ctnen  ?Dlann  »ic  anberc  mc^r  (F.  1874).  Scrad)tc  nur  9[?frnunft 
unb  SBifTenfAaft  (F.  1851).  Die  9?ubcn  ^aben  mi*  wcrtricben  (Folk-song).  Soof 
^at  bie  2BeIt  umfc^elt.     33.  Sadler  ^at  ben  $^au|l  iiberfe^t. 

199.  Two  accusatives  may  stand,  one  of  the  person  and 
one  of  the  thing,  after  verbs  meaning  to  ask  for,  to  inquire. 


201]  SY2!^TAX  OF  THE  CASES— ACCUSATIVE.  71 

teach,  to  cause  to  do  a  tiling  or  have  a  thing  done,  and  simi- 
lar ones,  e.g.,  fragen,  le^ren,  laffen,  Mtten.  Ex.:  2Ber  le^rte  t)i(^ 
tiefe  gemalttgen  SBorte  ?  (Le.)  Se^re  mid)  tfeun  nd&i  teinem  S3o'^U 
gefallen  (B.)  (t^un  =  second  ace).  SBoden  ®ie  tien  ^Irjt  nic()t 
lommen  lajfen  ? 

1.  After  fragen,  bitten,  iiberreben/  kreben,  the  two  accusatives  stand,  as  a 
rule,  only  when  the  accusative-  of  the  thing  is  a  neuter  pronoun,  e.  g.,  id) 
bitte,  frage  bid)  etmaiJ,  x6.i%Xit  m\.  If  the  pronoun  is  lacking,  then  fragen 
nac^  +  D.,  bitten  urn  +  A.,  iiberrcben  ioon  or  ju  +  D.  or  the  G.  without  prep- 
osition is  the  prevailing  construction  :  ^afl  bu  nac^  i^m  gefragt  ?  3^  ^abe  i^n 
barum  gebeten. 

Ciigen  jlrafen,  Sunber  ne|men  govern  an  A.  of  the  person :  2)a^  nimmt 
mic^  SBunber,  "  I  wonder  at  that." 

2.  But  these  pronouns,  baS,  nic^t^,  »iet,  stand  for  old  genitives  which  were  felt  as 
accusatives.  The  construction  was  :  2Bunber  nimmt  mi^  be§  or  be^fen,  wonder  seizes 
me  on  that  account.  (See  186.)  Sugen  is  probably  a  G.  of  cause  :  ^emanb  »egen  ber 
Cuoien  ftvafen.    Semen  for  te^ren,  though  found  in  Goethe,  is  wrong. 

200.  Notice  a  choice  of  construction  in  certain  cases,  when 
the  personal  object  is  further  defined  by  another  case  or  prep- 
osition and  case.  The  verbs  that  concern  us  here  are  such  as 
fd^Iagen,  trejfen,  treten,  fte^en,  and  similar  ones. 

1.  Dative  of  the  person  and  accusative  of  the  affected  part: 
3d?  maf^e  mix  tie  ipante  or  meine  ^pdnte. 

2.  Dative  of  the  person  and  preposition  +  A. :  3^%  trete  i^m 
auf  ten  ^uf ,  fc^tage  i^m  tn'5  ©eftc^t. 

3.  Accusative  of  the  person  and  preposition  +  A. :  S^ir  fi^Iagen 
ten  ^eint  auf^  ^aiipt.  Sir  treten  tie  ©c^Iange  auf  ten  ^opf.  The 
choice  is  between  2  and  3.  But  2  is  preferable  after  intran- 
sitive verbs;  3  after  transitives. 

201.  These  accusatives  are  both  object-accusatives,  but 
after  verbs  meaning  to  name,  scold,  regarding,  and  others  of 
similar  meaning,  the  second  accusative  is  a  predicate  or  facti- 
tive accusative,  while  the  first  is  direct  object,  e.  g.,  after  nennen, 
fd^elten,  fc^impfen,  glauben,  taufen,  ^ci^en  (trans.). 


72  SYKTAX   OF  THE   CASES — ACCUSATIVE.  [202- 

Ex. :  3n  tiefiler  Seek  .fc^merit  nttc^  ber  Spott  ber  ^^remblmgc,  bie  un^  ben 
SBauernaoel  fc^eltcn,  "  who  call  us  by  the  nickname  of  *  peasant  nobility '  " 
(Sch.).  1)ic  Slrcue  .  .  .  ifl  iebem  Wltn\<i)cn  mt  ber  mdjfk  a3lut<Sfreunb,  aU  i^ren 
9{ac^er  fii^lt  er  fii:^  geboren  (id.),  ^o^  fii^le  ic^  mic^  benfelben,  ber  id^  war  (id.). 
3d^  ac^te  i^n  aU  einen  S^renmann. 

202.  1.  After  laffett  +  fein  and  luerben  a  predicate  A.  by  attraction  is 
found  instead  of  the  predicate  nominative,  but  the  latter  is  the  prefera- 
ble construction,  e.  g.,  Sa^  bai^  aSuc^lein  beinen  ^^reunb  fein  (G.).  Sap  biefe  |)aUc 
felbft  ben  ©(^Quplotj  merben  (Sch.).    Fiesco  V.  12.    ^JJlic^  lo^t  ben  er[ten  jein. 

2.  For  the  passive  construction,  see  179,  2.  The  verbs  in  199,  1, 
may  retain  the  accusative  (pronoun),  also  le^ren.  This  would  also  admit 
an  accusative  predicate  noun  in  the  passive :  1)a^  <S(^Iimm)1e,  toa^  un^ 
tt)iberfa^rt,  ba^  werben  wir  \)om  %a^  gele^rt  (G.).  3c^  werbe  ben  %mi  gele^rt. 
But  it  is  best  to  avoid  all  these  predicate  accusatives.  They  sound 
pedantic.  Better  say  :  3i^  ^abe  3;attjunterri(^t,  Xanjftunbe.  3c^  werbe  immer 
wieber  barnac^  sefragt,  barum  gebeten. 

203.  The  inner  or  nearer  object  stands  in  the  accusative 
called  the  "cognate."  The  noun  has  the  same  meaning  as 
the  verb.  Its  idea  is  generally  included  in  the  verb  :  (Einen 
guten  ^ampf  ^abe  id)  gefdmpft  (B.).  (£tne  (SAIac^t  fAIagcn,  fcei§c 
J^rdnen  weinen,  etc.;  Garten  fpielen,  @d)Ittt|'d)ut)  laufcn.  ®ax  fdjbne 
<2ptele  fpieP  id?  mit  lit  (G.). 

204.  Notice  that  the  noun  is  sometimes  replaced  by  an  indefinite 
pronoun,  wa^,  t^,  dn^,  etc.  Compare  Eng.  "  to  lord  it,"  the  unclassical 
"to  come  it  over  somebody."  5lber  bie  Siferfuc^t  uber  ©panien  geroann  e« 
bie^mal  itber  biefe  politifc^e  ©i^mpat^ie  (Sch.).  Die  ®otter  fatten  e«  mit  ben  3:apfer^ 
|len(id.) ;  ftc^  roasS  rec^te*^  (jure^te)  laufen,  fpringen,  tanjen,  "to  run,  etc.,  a  great 
deal."  Sijgen  <Sic  mtr  cinc^  auf  eigene  9iec^nung  »or  (Le.).  M)  fc^roa^e  eind  mit 
(Le.).     See  also  F.  3416. 

205.  After  many  impersonal  verbs  and  some  other  verbs 
the  logical  subject  stands  in  the  accusative  (see  186).  The 
verbs  denote  states  of  the  body  and  mind  :  e^  tiirftet,  ^ungert, 
fcbldfert,  wuntert,  frdnft,  yertric^t  mi&i. 

Here  belong  also  C(g  gibt,  c^  f)at,  eg  fc^t,  eg  gilt :  Derglcichen  ©timmen  (\[W^ 
(Sch.),  "  There  are  such  voices."    (£g  |)at  ®efa^rrtvcnn  mx  nidjt  Qdjui,  "  There 


208]  SYNTAX  OF  THE   CASES — ACCUSATIVE.  73 

is  danger  .  .  .  ".    (i^  fe^t  ^ult,  |)anbel,  ©ct)Ia9e,  There  is  a  fight,  a  quarrel 
going  on,  somebody  is  being  whipi;ed.     Comp.  French  U  y  a.  See 236,4. 

206.  After  reflexive  verbs  the  pronoun  generally  stands  in 
the  accusative  :  (Entj"(^lie§e  l>id),  33efinne  tid)  n?o  Ju  bift  (Sch.). 
But  see  185  and  197. 

Adverbial  Accusative. 

207.  It  denotes  measure  (amount),  time,  and  place. 

1.  It  denotes  measure  after  verbs  like  ttjiegcn,  foften,  gettcn ; 
after  adjectives  like  lang,  breit,  ^o(^,  a(t,  ivert,  etc. 

Ex.:  Die  SfJu^e  beine^  greunbe^  gilt  e^,  "  is  at  stake  "  (Sch.).  Die  tijlc 
Wiegt  brei  ^ilogramm,  \m\  Bentner,  fiinf  Sot,  etc.  Die  SritcEe  \^  metirere  2;aufenb 
f^u^  lang,  ^unbert  fec^jig  ^ocE)  uiib  ac^tjig  i^up  breit.  Da^  Dorf  liegt  eine  Stimbe  (an 
hour's  walk)  »on  ber  i5tabt.     ^^riebrid^  ift  eineu  |alkn  ^opf  grower  al^  Dietrich. 

The  usage  as  to  the  case  of  the  person  with  «fojlen"  is  unsettled  :  Der 
©(^erj  ft)|let  mic^  or  mir  i)iel  @elb.     Grimm's  Dictionary  favors  the  A. 

2.  It  stands  with  verbs  of  motion  to  express  the  distance 
and  the  way,  the  noun  being  often  followed  by  an  adverb. 

Ex. :  2Beic^e  feinen  ©c^ritt  j^urucf.    Bwei  Sanberer  fte'^t  er  bie  ©tra^e  ^ietut 
(Sch.).    e^  jie^t  ein  ^aufe  ba«  ob're  3:^al  ^erab  (Uh.).    Dcr  gel^  roEte  ben  SSerg  , 
l^inab.    W\i  leifen  ©(i^ritten  fd^Iic^  er  feinen  bofen  2Beg  (Sch.). 

The  A.  of  measure  and  distance  supplanted  the  G.  of  an  older  period  ; 
that  denoting  the  way  is  old.     The  G.  still  occurs  frequently.     See  181. 

208.  The  accusative  of  time  denotes  the  duration  and  the 
moment  of  an  action.  The  former  is  often  followed  by  an 
adverb,  lang,  turc^,  iiber.  Ex. :  %tx  33ote  fattn  ten  ^Mugenblid  ^ier 
fein  (Sch.).  (Sr  [(^Icift  ten  ganjen  9)?orgen.  £)u  ^aft  e6  S^^v-elang 
betad)t. 

1.  Compare  the  G.  of  time  (see  187),  which  denotes  a  repetition  of  the 
action  or  a  custom.  The  A.  denotes  a  definite  point  of  time  or  fixed 
period:  (Der)Ue§  33etf^unb^  ^alten  be^  ?S)torgeni3  gIeic^(Sch.).  ©onnabenba  9?ac^^ 
mittaga  ^aben  wir  feine  ©(^ule  (=  custom).  9?ad)|ten  SJiittwoc^  ^aben  wir  fcinc 
(Sd)ule.  9io(^  biefe  9?acbt  ntu§  er  ?D^abrib  Sterlaff'en  (Sch.).  The  G.  denoting 
duration  of  time  is  rarer  now  :  ©in  ®ift  ba(3  neun  ganjer  3al)re  bauert  (Le.). 
This  may  be  partitive  G. 


74  SYNTAX   OP  THE  ADJECTIVE.  [209- 

Absolute  Accusative. 

209.  This  is  generally  accompanied  by  an  adverbial  phrase, 
and  denotes  that  with  which  the  subject  is  provided.  Ex. :  3" 
-rion^^,  fcem  Ji^rannen,  fdjiicb  Woxo^,  Den  I^olc^  im  ®emante  (Sch.). 
(B&ion  ten  ^aU  entblopt,  tnkV  i(^  auf  meinem  ^}}?ante(  (Le.). 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   ADJECTIVE. 

210.  The  adjective  may  be  used  attributively,  predica- 
tively,  and  substantively:  ter  rei(^e  5^a(^bar;  ter  5^a(^bar  ift  reic^; 
ter  9lei(fce» 

Attributive  Use  of  the  Adjective. 

211.  Some  adjectives  are  only  or  mostly  used  attributively, 
as  :  1,  the  superlatives  and  ordinals;  2,  certain  adjectives  de- 
rived from  adverbs:  ^iefiig,  bortig,  feittjerig,  Bi^l^erig,  e.  g.,  t)ie  ^iefige 
3eitung,  but  not  tie  3^^tunc(  ift  ^ieftg ;  3,  many  adjectives  in  -i[d>, 
-lidj  -en  :  nortifd^,  irtifd),  tdglic^,  anfangl'id^,  entlii^,  gotten,  fetten, 
filbern,  glcifern ;  4,  the  comparatives  and  superlatives  in  76,  2. 

1.  If  they  do  stand  in  the  predicate,  they  must  be  inflected,  and  the 
noun  may  be  understood,  e.  g.,  tie  Sicferung  tjl  eine  ftunblic^e,  not  ftiiublid). 

For  the  adjectives  in  -en  and  -ern>  ^on  +  noun  is  substituted,  e.g.,  ein 
33ec^er  yon  purem  ®olbe.  But  in  poetry  the  adjective  is  found:  2)er  ©tu^l 
ill  elfenbeinern  (R.). 

212.  The  attributive  adjective  is  inflected  and  agrees  with 
its  noun  in  gender,  number,  and  case  :  Wii  filler  ^toft  unt> 
frifd^em  @d)aum  ^at  er  midj  h?ot)l  gena^ret  (Uh.).  It  may  stand 
uninflected,  however:  1.  Before  a  neuter  noun  in  N.  (and  A.) 
(very  rarely  before  a  masc.  or  fem.)  :  5Rcine  ?0^utter  ^at  man^ 
giilren  ©emant  (G.).  S^  ift  ein  putelndrrifc^  3:ier  (F.  1167).  Fre- 
quently in  certain  phrases  like  „bar  ©elt",  "  cash  "  ;  „auf  gut 
^liirf".  Eare  :  ®ro§  9)lac^t  unb  »iel  Sift  (Lu.).  T^^  Stiter  ift  ein 
^bflic^  mdm  (G.);  „fremt  unt  frcmter  ©toff"  (F.  635.).  2.  When 
it  stands  after  the  noun,  mainly  in  poetry;  commonly  after 
coins,  weights,  and  measures:  Xer  ipau|)tmann  fii^rt  im  ®d)ilt  ein 


214]  SYNTAX  OF  THE   ADJECTIVE.  75 

0lo^lein  rot  'oon  ®olte  m't  einen  SBer  milb  (Uh.).  Sin  ©c^marm  »on 
®dften  gro^  unt)  llein  (Bii.).  3e^n  gu§  r^einifdj,  funf  ^funD  flamifc^. 
In  prose  also,  when  the  adjective  or  participle  has  adjuncts: 
Dort  tin  gutartige^,  gefittetc^  5panteU»olf,  fdjjtjelgenD  »on  ten  iipptgen 
grit^ten  eine^  gefegneten  %U\^t^,  tijai^fam  anf  ®efe^e,  Die  feine  'IQo^U 
tl)ater  tuaren  (Sch.).  3.  Of  two  adjectives  the  first  stands  unin- 
flected  in  certain  set  phrases;  when  the  two  express  one  idea; 
in  poetry,  very  frequently  in  Schiller  :  2;ie  gro§l)ergogIicb  6atifd)e 
3flegierung ;  ta5  fomgIi(^  preu^ifd^e  Si^tlamt.  23e^  tern,  ter  an  ten 
njiirtig  alten  Jpau^rat  i|m  rul)rt  (Sch.).  !Een  falfd)  tterraterifc^en  0lat 
(id.).  „^n  tie  iueit  unt  keite  5Belt"  (G.).  Schiller  has  „traurig 
^nftrer  5Irgtuo^n" ;  „njelt(id)  eitte  ^o^eit" ;  „D  ungliidfelig  jammerijol^ 
lev  Zao^" ;  „mit  graufam  teufelifd^er  2uft/'  etc. 

1.  Sauter,  and  generally  eitel,  botli  in  the  sense  of  "pure,"  "nothing 
but,"  also  the  adj.  in  -er,  507,  2,  are  undeclined :  2)a^  i|l  lautcr  Unfinn. 
effet  eitel  ungefauert  Srot  (B.).    2)er  tolner  2)om. 

213.  The  attributive  adjective  is  inflected  weak  after  cer- 
tain limiting  words,  viz.,  after  the  definite  article  and  pronouns 
declined  like  it;  after  ein,  !etn,  and  the  possessives,  excepting 
the  N.  sg.  of  all  genders  and  the  A.  sg.  neut.  and  fern.  Ex. : 
ter  gute  Slpfelkum  (Uh.);  m  glu(Jli($en  (Stunte;  gu  jenem  frofcen 
%t\tt;  elne^  fdjonen  2:age5 ;  an  etn em  langen  3tfte  (Uh.);  fein  griineg 
^au^  (id.);  eine  arme  Sduerin  (N.  and  A.  sg.);  ein  feitene^  ^leit 
(N.  and  A.  sg.). 

214.  The  adjective  is  therefore  declined  strong,  when  not 
uninflected  (see  218)  and  when  not  preceded  by  any  of  the 
above  limiting  words,  mentioned  in  213,  e.  g.,  ^olte  ©e^nfucbt, 
[u§e5  ^offen  (Sch.).  ©tumme  fitter  toter  (B(fcd^e  (Platen  ?).  Also 
after  the  uninflected  pronouns  m\6>,  fol^,  ijiel,  menig,  me^r,  ttwai, 
nic^t^,  and  after  uninflected  numerals.  Ex.:  (Sr  gibt  tent  treucn 
^irten  man&i  Man!e5  Stiicf  (piece  of  money)  ta^on  (Uh.).  SGelc^ 
reid^cr  ^immel  (G.).  Sold)  tre|flid)er  ^^onarc^  (Sch.)  (see  216,  4; 
221). 


76  SYNTAX  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE.  [215^ 

215.  The  syntactical  distinction  between  strong  and  weak  inflection  of  the  adjec- 
tive, though  very  old,  is  by  no  means  clearly  drawn  even  now.  The  oldest  inflection 
of  the  adjective  is  the  so-called  "'  uninflected,"  identical  with  the  strong  noun  declen- 
sion. When  the  pronominal  endings  spread  over  the  adjective  declension,  forming 
the  present  strong  adjective  declension,  the  adjective  probably  was  still  declined 
strong  even  after  a  pronoun  (ind.  article).  Of  this  there  are  traces  from  O.  H.  G.  down 
to  the  17th  century.  The  n-declension  of  the  adjective  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Ger- 
manic languages.  Having  less  distinctive  and  fewer  endings  than  the  strong,  it  is  natural 
that  the  adjective  should  be  declined  according  to  it,  when  preceded  by  a  word  which 
had  the  strong  endings.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  syntactical  distinction  and  to  the 
feeling  that  two  strong  forms  should  not  stand  side  by  side.  When  an  adjective  be- 
came a  substansive  or  was  used  as  such,  it  was  always  inflected  weak,  with  or  without 
article.  This  explains  221,  1.  In  Gothic  the  present  participle  and  the  comparatives 
were  always  inflected  weak.  In  O.  H.  G.  appear  only  a  few  strong  comparatives  and 
superlatives. 

216.  Unsettled  usage  as  to  strong  and  weak  forms. 

1»  The  strong  genitive  sg.  m.  and  n.  turned  weak  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  this  is  now  the  prevailing  form  :  „^o^t^  SDJut^"  (Bii.);  Mutagen 
fRul^m^  (Uh.).  »2Borte  fiipen  ^audjig"  (Sch.).  The  pronouns  always  remain 
strong,  except  jencr,  ieber»  of  which  a  weak  form  is  rare,  e.  g.,  jeben  SSolU 
(Uh.) ;  jmcn  %aQi  (Bii.).  This  weakening  is  due  to  the  feeling,  that  two 
strong  forms  should  not  stand  together.     See  215,  217. 

2.  After  personal  pronouns  the  rule  is  strictly  the  strong  form,  as  the 
pronoun  is  not  a  limiting  word.  But  as  early  as  M.  H.  G.  weak  forms 
begin  to  appear.  Usage  now  favors  :  after  ic^,  bn,  er  (in  address),  mic^, 
bid^  only  the  strong  form,  e.  g.,  „bu  jlarfer  ^ijnig^fol&n"  (Uh.) ;  ic^  armer  9)?ann; 
after  mir,  bit  mostly  the  strong  form  ;  after  roir,  i|r  the  weak  (if  fern, 
always),  e.g.,  SScr  nic  fetn  93rot  mit  Sljranen  a§  .  .  ♦  bet  fennt  eud^  nic^t,  t^r 
^imnttifc^ctt  SWcic^te !  (G.).  In  w®egru^t  i^r,  fi^one  "Damen !  (G.),  the  comma 
makes  a  difference.  After  un^  and  euc^  (A.)  strong  and  weak  are  equally 
frequent.  After  un^  and  cud^  (D.)  strong  and  weak  coincide  of  course  : 
2)?an  fottte  eud^  fd^Iec^tc  ^erle  ktjletfen  (arrest)  laflen.  ©uc^  faulen  SBurfc^en  i|l  je^t 
bcr  Srotfor^  ^o^er  ge'^angt. 

3.  In  the  vocative  the  rule  now  is  strong  form  both  in  sg.  and  pi., 
e.g.,  Un»erf^dmter !  tuennbid^  jemanb  gel^ort  ^atte  (G.).  !Du,  armer  ®ei|l  (Sh.). 
The  plural  is  still  found  weak,  but  rarely,  as  :  Cieben  i^rcunbc,  e^  gat  beffrc 
3eitcn  oXi  bic  unfern  (Sch.). 

In  O.  H.  G.  the  weak  form  was  the  rule  ;  in  M.  H.  G.,  the  strong  in 
the  sg. 

4.  After    certain  pronouns,  pronominal  adjectives,    and    indefinite 


219J  SYKTAX   OF  THE   ADJECTIVE.         .  77 

numerals,  such  as  fotc^e,  iretc^e,  eintgc,  etUc^e,  aU(,  man^t,  him,  and  others, 
there  stands  in  the  N.  and  A.  pi.  very  frequently  the  strong  form  against 
the  rule,  but  rarely  in  the  G.  pi.  This  strong  form  is  the  older.  Even 
after  biefe  and  jene  strong  adjectives  may  be  found  in  the  classics.  Ex. : 
■Der  SSIumen^dnbler  ^at  feine  fc^oue  9icfen  me^r.  2Bo  |)a|!  bu  [olc^e  ^alb^»erfaulte 
Sirnen  gefauft  ?  After  the  Q.  pi.  ^eier  and  breier  the  weak  adjective  is  fre- 
quent, but  in  the  spoken  language  these  genitives  are  very  rare  :  ber 
5lnfauf  i)on  jwei  neuen  ^aufern  or  jt»et  neuer  ^aufer,  and  not  jweier  neuen  (or  -er) 
^ciufer. 

217.  If  two  or  more  adjectives  hold  the  same  relation  to  the  noun, 
they  have  the  same  inflection.  If  the  second  adjective,  however,  be  more 
closely  related  to  the  noun,  forming  a  joint  idea,  then  it  usually  stands 
in  weak  form  in  G.  and  D.,  not  in  N.  and  A  It  can  often  be  formed  into 
a  compound  noun,  and  has  less  accent  than  the  first  adjective  :  (£r  traftierte 
un^  mit  [c^Iec^tem  roten  2Betnc  (=  Dlotwein);  bie  ^olgen  tlutiger  bitrgerlid^en  ^riegc 
(=  SSurgerfriege). 

1.  After  certain  adjectives  like  folgenber,  oVx^tXt  crttjd'^nter,  gebac^ter^  etc., 
the  second  adjective,  as  a  rule,  is  inflected  weak  in  all  cases :  ©enannte^ 
unumfl5pli(^e  ^Jtinjip,  oBiger  anerfannte  (Sa^. 

The  Adjective  in  the  Predicate. 

218.  The  predicate  adjective  is  uninflected.  If  it  stand 
inflected  in  the  predicate,  the  noun  is  supplied  and  the  adjec- 
tive is  looted  upon  as  attributive :  Vit  .^raft  i|l  fc^mad),  atletn  tie 
2uft  ift  grog  (F.  2203).  Deitt  ©efc^cift  ifl  tin  [(^mierige^  (supply 
"one");  „m  ^oligiften  Sog  ift  !etn  glMi(^e^." 

The  adjective  (or  participle)  is  also  uninflected  when  it  is 
an  appositional  or  factitive  predicate  :  2Gir  famen  gliicflii^  an. 
^nn,  H^  ftnU  id)  bumm  (F.  961).    IDer  ®Iaube  mac^t  felig  (B.). 

219.  Certain  adjectives  are  only  used  predicatively.  Some 
of  these  are  really  nouns,  like  feint*,  freunt,  ^eil,  fcbate,  not,  nii^e, 
f(^ult.  Others,  originally  adjectives  or  past  participles,  have 
been  restricted  to  this  use,  like  ^B^aft,  ab^olt,  getroft,  anftd)tig, 
ijertuftig.  All  of  them  have  not  yet  become  full  adjectives; 
and  many,  if  with  adjective  form,  are  of  late  derivation  : 
aBfpenftig,  ab|o(t,  aBwentig,  au^ftntig,  ^antgemein.     Ex.:    Cttilie 


78  STi!n:Ax  of  the  adjective.  [220- 

fonnte  tern  ^iJlatc^en  ni(^t  feinb  fein  (G.).  Sin  fcbbner  S^lann,  eine 
fcfoone  ^rau!  ift  ter  Xireftor  gliirflid)  genu3,t^rer  ^ab^aft  ^u  werten, 
fo  ,  ♦  .  (id.).    Xie  ^nec^te  murten  ^anrgemein. 

1.  In  O.  H.  G.  the  adjective  in  the  predicate  is  still  inflected,  though 
not  always.  In  M.  H.  G.  it  is  rarely  inflected.  In  N.  H,  G.  ijcUer  and 
l^alber  are  stereotyped  strong  forms  used  for  both  numbers  and  all  gen- 
ders :  2)te  ^a<i)t  ifi  ^alber  ^in  (coll.) ;  „be^  ^ad)t^  urn  ^alkr  3i»olf"  (student 
song).    33otter  ©d^merjen  unb  ^ranf^cit  (B.). 

Substantive  Use  of  the  Adjective. 

220.  The  adjective  when  used  as  a  noun  is  inflected  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  already  given  for  the  adjective  proper : 
Wlit  ^letnem  fangt  man  an,  mit  (55ro§em  ^brt  man  anf  (Prov.).  Xu 
<B6>totxt  an  meiner  2in!en  (Korner).  Xie  Srften  mxUn  tie  Se^ten 
fein  (B.).  For  gender  see  160,  3.  No  inflection  is  the  rule  in 
certain  set  phrases:  ®kx&i  unt  (SJleidJ  gefellt  fid)  gem  (Prov.). 
3ung  unt  2llt,  (^ro§  nnt  ^lein,  9leid5  unt  %vm,  tjon  ^lein  an,  »on 
3nng  auf ;  also  in  the  names  of  languages  :  Snglifc^,  ^ranjbftfd? ; 
mein  geliet^te^  Xeutf^  (F.  1223).  3Bie  t)ei§t  tieg  auf  Stalienif^  ?  Sr 
^at  ijon  Mnt  auf  ^lormegifc^  gefonnt.    Also  of  colors:  ®riin,  33tau. 

221.  Usage  admits  of  many  irregularities. 

1.  The  weak  form  in  the  plural  when  no  article  precedes  as  S3ebienten» 
S3eamten,  ©c^onen,  Sungen,  or  rarely  the  strong  form  in  the  singular  like 
any  feminine  noun,  invariable  in  the  sg. :  ber  ©c^one,  instead  of  ber  ©c^bnen 
(G.  sg.).    See  215. 

2.  The  strong  or  weak  plural  after  atte,  einigc,  ctlid^e,  etc. :  atlc  ®cte^rte, 
einigc  ®efanbte. 

3.  After  toai,  cttoa^,  »tel,  etc.,  the  weak  form  is  rare.     See  214. 

4  If  an  adjective  precede  an  adjective-substantive  and  is  inflected 
weak,  the  latter  is  of  course  weak  ;  if  the  adjective  is  inflected  strong, 
then  the  substantive  may  be  either  strong  or  weak.  The  latter  form  is 
perhaps  more  common  for  the  neuter,  the  strong  certainly  for  the  mascu- 
line nouns :  9ietn,  fie  (ba^  SBeib)  ifl,  o  ^olbe  ©d^oncn,  gur  ©efetligfcit  gcmac^t  (G.). 
T)k  armen  SSewanbten  ftnb  gcroo^nlid^  nici^t  wlUfommcn.  ^od)9ejleUte  SBcamtc  finb 
cntlaffen.    Der  neuc  SBebientc  ^at  ein  angene^med  5tu^ere.    See  F.  II.  6842. 


223]  SYKTAX  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE.  79 

a.  Do  not  confound  ba^  9?ecf^t,  law — ba^  9tec^te,  tlie  riglit  thing  ;  baiJ  ®utr 
property  —  ba^  ®ute,  the  good  (abstract)  ;  (ba^^)  @(^warj,  black  (the  color) 
—  ba<J  ©(^warjc  (the  bull's  eye  of  a  target),  etc. 

Syntax  of  Comparative  and  Superlative. 

222.  These  may  be  used  just  like  the  positive,  only  that 
the  superlative  is  never  used  predicatively,  i.  e.,  uninflected, 
excepting  allerlieBft,  e.  g.,  tie  33Iume  ift  allerliebft*  If  it  stands  in 
the  predicate,  it  is  always  weak,  being  preceded  by  the  definite 
article:  1;ie|'er  33aum  ift  Cer  ^bd)fte  or  tiefer  33aum  ift  am  l)0(^ften. 
These  two  should  not  be  used  indiscriminately,  however,  as 
they  too  generally  are  in  the  spoken  language.  The  first  is 
the  strictly  relative  comparison;  it  can  be  strengthened  by 
aOer-  e.  g.,  cer  ^ijc^fte  ijon  alien,  ter  atlert)0(^fte.  The  prepositional 
superlative  should  only  be  used  when  not  so  much  the  objects 
themselves  or  different  objects  are  to  be  compared,  but  the 
same  objects  under  different  circumstances  of  time  and  place. 
This  is  generally  the  "  absolute  "  superlative,  expressed  by  an 
adverbial  phrase:  2^er  @tarfe  ift  am  mdc^ttgften  aUein  (Sch.), 
"  The  strong  man  is  most  powerful  standing  alone,  unimpeded 
by  the  weak."  Xie  Spfel  finD  auf  ter  fonnigen  (Seite  ic^  ©arten^J  am 
reifften.    %k  33oot^  ^licfoelieu  fpielte,  war  ta^  2:^eater  am  ttollften, 

1.  The  "relative"  superlative  is  generally  preceded  by  the  definite 
article,  the  "  absolute  "  has,  as  a  rule,  ein  or  no  article.  Goethe  is  very 
fond  of  such  an  absolute  su]3erlative  :  (Sin  aHerliebftei^  ^inb,  a  most  lovely 
child.  1)k^  beutet  auf  ein  fpatefte^  (a  very  late)  9?aturereigm($  (G.).  Notice 
also  :  miV^  bie  SBcnigften  Bnncn  (G.),  because  very  few  know  how;  ber 
%nx\i,  bie  SItern,  bie  neueren  ©^jrac^en,  and  other  examples.  They  show 
absolute  compnrison  with  the  definite  article.  The  absolute  superlative 
is  best  expressed  by  an  adverb  +  adjective  in  the  positive.  The  more 
common  adverbs  used  are  :  fe|r,  re(i)t,  ^d^]i,  au§er|l,  iiberau^,  e.  g.,  eine  |od^|l 
angene^me  Uberrafc^ung,  ein  rec^t  bummer  Sunge. 

223.  Any  adjective  can  be  compared  by  -er,  -efi,  except 
those  that  are  never  used  attributively  (see  219)  and  a  few 
whose  form  seems  awkward,  like  !ned)tifd),  (Krrif(^,  but  the  latter 


80  SYNTAX  OF  THE  KUMEEALS.  [224- 

are  not  absolutely  excluded.     Man,  treig  ©ott,  fte  toax  mc^r  fd)ul5 
aU  i^  (F.  2960). 

224.  When  two  qualities  belonging  to  the  same  object  are 
compared,  me^r,  ireniger,  minDer  are  now  used,  but  tbe  classics 
are  still  full  of  the  comparatives  in  -er. 

According  to  Lelimann  (L.  Spraclie,  p.  206)  Lessing  uses  mefjr  only 
once  :  Dicfe  5lu^rufungen  finb  r^etorifc^er  aU  griinbUc^  (Le.).  Present  usage: 
2)er  ®efette  ij!  roeniger  ^eimtudtf:^  aU  bumm.    Der  <Solbat  ijl  me^r  tapfer  aU  flug. 

225.  Logically  the  superlative  cannot  be  used  of  two  objects,  but  it 
is  so  used  much  more  frequently  in  German  than  in  English,  e.  g.,  3n)ei 
©o^nc,  wc»on  jie  ben  altejlen  .  .  .  mit  einem  9)fcile  erfc^cg  (Le.). 

1.  For  the  conjunctions  benn,  dU,  after  the  comparative,  see  333. 

2.  Notice  the  bold  comparative  in  H.  and  D.,  IX.  311  :  9?un,  i|l  ba^ 
SWeinc  meiner  aU  icmaliJ.  Such  forms  as  bcr  Dcinigfite,  etc.,  at  the  end  of 
letters  are  rare.  Seiber  is  a  comparative  of  leib  (adj.),  which  became  a 
noun  very  early.     Cftercr  occurs  in  Lessing. 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   NUMERALS. 

226.  The  cardinals,  used  attributively,  are  indeclinable 
now,  except  ein,  eine,  ein.  The  G.  and  D.  of  p^n  and  trei  now 
and  then  occur  still :  ^mxtx  S^^gen  ^nnl  mad^t  alle  SDa^r^eit 
fwnt)  (Pro v.).  (Here  „3lt?eier"  shows  the  case;  jn?ei  ^mo^tn  SRunD 
would  not  be  clear. )     ^i^lt  »on  ein^  Bi3  !^untert. 

1.  To  express  the  year  the  cardinal  is  merely  added  to  „tm 
3at)r(e)"  or  to  „in/'  as  im  3^^^^  ad^tge^n  ^unrert  tin  unl  ad^tjig,  or 
shorter,  in  1813.  The  cardinal  shows  the  year,  the  ordinal  the 
month :  ®bt^e  ftarb  ten  22ten  SJiarj  1832.  ^anno»cr,  ten  (1.)  erften 
Sluguft  1881.     The  ordinals  used  only  attributively,  see  211. 

2.  The  time  is  expressed  in  various  ways.  Answering  to 
such  questions  as:  2Cie»iel  U^r  ifJ  e^,  njeld^e  2^\i  ift  e^  or  {)Oi\^in 
tt)tr?  xo'xt  ift  e^  an  ter  3fit-  we  say  :  ^^  ift  jmblf  ^orbef,  a^er  noc^ 
niAt  ein^.  (E^  i|l  ein  ^nertet  trei  or  nuf  trei,  or  ein  35iertel  na*  (u6cr) 
jmei  (all  mean  a  quarter  past  two).    (£5  ift  trei  33iertel  trei  or  rtuf 


229]  SYNTAX  OF  THE   NUMERALS.  81 

trei  or  cin  Siertet  »or  trei,  =  a  quarter  of  three.  S^  ift  ^at6  jtrolf, 
=  half  past  eleven,  on  the  same  principle  as  ^ierte^alb  (see 
229).  We  can  say:  20  SJiinuten  m6^  ge^n  (past  ten),  iwan^xQ 
'OCX  jebn  (of  ten).  X)er  3ug  fd^rt  3  U^r  20  ^iJlinutett  ttac^mittag^  ab. 
S3ir  motlen  nn^  urn  fiinf  treffen* 

227.  Used  substantively  the  cardinals  are  more  frequently 
inflected,  having  a  plural  in  -e  (see  429)  and  a  dative  in  -ett 
(see  79):  S^  waren  i^rer  fiinf (e),  3molf(e)» 

1.  Colloquially  this  -e  is  very  commonly  used  as  far  as  19  incl.,  even 
when  the  figure  itself  be  meant,  which  stands  in  the  feminine  singular : 

IDiefe  2ld)t(e)  i|"t  nic^t  pt  gemac^t.  Diefe  9^eun(e)  fle^t  f^icf.  (£lf  x\t  bie  @unbe. 
Slfe  iiberfc^reitct  bie  je|n  ©ebote  (Sch.). 

2.  2)ie  5)?iaio'n,  bie  SSiflio'n,  bie  SP^ifftarbc  are  regular  nouns,  and,  unlike 
l^imbert  and  taufenb,  stand  in  the  plural  after  the  cardinals,  e.g.,  brei  'iSliU 
lionen,  but  fiinf  ^unbert,  fed)d  taufcnb.  T)a^  |>unbert,  ba<g  2;aufenb  are  common 
nouns,  pi.:  ^unberte  +  hundreds,  S^awfenbe  +  thousands:  e.g.,  ju  ^unber=' 
ten,  a  hundred  at  a  time  ;   bei  ^unberttaufenben  bie  9)?enfc^en  bruden  (Le.). 

228.  „53eibe"  corresponds  to  Eng.  "both "in  form  and 
use:  3fi  ^^^  ^f^^^  <Jn  beiten  Slugen  Hint  ?  It  may  have  the  defi- 
nite'article  before  it:  Me  beiten  ^ii^e,  "both  the  cows." 

1.  The  singular  beib-  means  "  either,"  "each  "  (of  two).  S3eibe^  Ia§t 
ftd)  ^oren  =  either  statement  is  reasonable  ;  ha^  3(benbnia^l  unter  beiber  ®c^ 
ftalt,  the  communion  in  either  form  ;  but  the  masc.  and  fern,  are  archaic. 
2)enn  ju  elnem  gropen  ?Kanne  ge^ort  bcibea  :  ^leintgfeiten  aU  ^leintgfeiten  unb 
TOid)tige  Dinge  aU  wii^tige  Dtnge  ^u  bebanbeln  (Le.).  I8eibe(3  has  supplanted 
betbe,  beidiu  (pi.),  which  are  still  common  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries. 

Notice  beibe^  —  unb  =  both  —  and.  S3eibe^,  etn  loblic^er  ^ijnig  unb  mad)ttger 
©(^winger  ber  Sanje  (Bii.). 

220.  1.  Peculiar  are  the  compounds  of  the  ordinals  with  ^alb  following 
them  and  felb  preceding  them :  iBiert(e)|alb  (3^),  neunt(e)^alb  {8}),  meaning 
ba^  ijierte  nur  ^alb  or  weniger  etn  1)a[b,  ha^  neunte  itur  f^aXb.  2)rciief)ntet)alb  %a^  = 
12  i^-a§  aber  ba^  13te  nur  ^alb.  Ags.,  Icelandic,  Danish,  and  L.  Q.  have  the 
same  forms,  though  in  the  two  latter  "  half "  precedes  the  ordinal.  It 
does  not  go  back  to  O.  H.  G.  ©elbanber  =  er(felb|"t)  ber  ^wette,  two  of  them  ; 
fefbbrei^e^nt,  himself  the  13th,  thirteen  of  them  (G.)  ;  felbbritt,  felbyiert  gen- 
erally uninflected,    (^elbil  ^anjigjler  (Le.).    The  cardinal  is  not  common, 


82  SYin^AX   OF  THE   PERSONAL   PROKOUN.  230- 

but  Lessing  has  „felb  fiinfjiger."    This  composition  is  more  common  than 
^alh-  in  the  modern  dialects. 

2.  Notice  also  the  cardinals  in  -er,  as  in  ben  fitnfjigcr  Barren — either 
"from  1850-60"  or  "  from  50-60  years  old."  It  is  now  classical.  This 
-er  occurs  in  the  names  of  the  unit,  ten,  etc.:  bcr  (Siner,  ber  3e^ner,  etc. 
See  507,  1.    3u  i'todi,  britt  also  occur  for  ju  imim,  breien. 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   PRONOUNS. 
Syntax  of  the  Personal  Pronoun. 

230.  1.  Xn,  sg.,  i^v,  pi.,  are  used  in  familiar  intercoui*se 
in  the  family  and  among  intimate  friends,  in  addressing  God, 
in  sermons,  in  solemn  discourses  and  in  poetry.  Ex. :  jtennft 
lu  cad  Sant,  too  tie  Sitronen  bliibn  ?  (G.).  33linter,  alter  '^aUx !  tu 
fannft  ten  Jag  ter  grei^eit  nic^t  me^r  f  d^  a  u  e  n  ;  tu  foUft  i|n  ^  o  r  en 
(Sch. ).  Sr^ab'ner  ©eift,  tu  gat*ft  mix,  gabft  mir  alles,  marum  i(^  bat 
(F.  3218). 

2.  (Bit,  3.  p.  pi.,  is  used  everywhere  else,  even  among  rela- 
tives in  some  families;  also  when  grown  children  address  the 
parents:  ^o  wo^nen  ©ie,  iuenn  i^  fragen  tarf  ? 

3.  This  peculiar  use  of  ®te  sprang  up  early  in  the  18th  century.  It  is  due,  no  doubt, 
to  the  use  of  the  singular  Gr  and  Sie  in  address,  which  were  the  height  of  politeness  in 
the  17th  century.  Gr  and  Sie  are  due  to  the  use  of  §err  and  jyrou  in  direct  address.  In 
Chamisso's  „^eter  Sc^Iemi^l"  the  gray-coat  always  addresses  Peter  with  „bcr  §err," 
e.  g.y  „9)253e  ter  §crr  tneinc  ^ui^'^inflK'^fcit  entfc^ulbtgen  .  .  .  ic^  ^abc  eine  ^itte  an  iljn." 
§err,  %xa\x,  3^rc  ®nafcen,  Gure  Gscellenj,  ©eine  aJiajefiat  were  followed  by  the  "  plural  of 
majesty"  (see  311,  2):  §err  'Dcftor  irurbcn  ba  fate^ifiert  (F.  3524).  gurS  crfte  recHcn 
geine  aWajeftat,  ba^  bie  3lrme'e  o^n'  3lufic^u6  iBo^inen  vdiimc  (Sch.).  §err  was  reduced 
to  mere  ,,n"  as  early  as  M.  H.  G.,  e.  g.,  er  Sigfrid  ;  in  the  16th  century,  „3Bcrter  er 
starrer."    This  form  encouraged  the  use  of  the  pronoun  cr  in  direct  address. 

4.  ^iftr,  in  addressing  one  person,  was  early  very  respectful  and  has  maintained  itself 
in  the  drama,  except  in  comedy,  to  this  day,  and  might  be  called  the  "  stage-address," 
and  is  due  to  Eng.  and  Fr.  influence.    See  Schiller's  DJJaria  Stuart. 

231.  The  gradation  as  to  politeness  and  etiquette  now  is  about  as 
follows  :  1.  For  princes  and  all  persons  of  liigb  standing,  3^rc  ®naben, 
(£urc  SxccUcnj,  Sure  ?Wajcfiat,  with  the  verb  in  the  pi.  2.  ©ie,  addressing 
one  or  more  persons,  verb  always  in  the  pi.,  e.g.,  biirftc  id)  ©ie  kgleitcn? 
3.  3^r,  pL  of  bUi  and  3^r  in  the  drama  addressing  one  or  more  persons, 


234]  SYNTAX   OF  THE   PERSOlfAL   PEOJ^OUN.  83 

e.g.,  ®»)dt  fommt  3^r,  boc^  3^r  fommt  (Scli.).    See  F.  981,  988.    4.  ©r,  ©ie, 
addressing  one  person,  now  rare.     5.  Du,  i^r,  as  in  230,  1. 

232.  The  genitive  of  the  pronouns  of  the  1.  and  2.  persons  stands 
very  rarely  after  nouns.  Goethe  has  it  once,  «metn,  be<3  ©eopo'fien,"  "  of 
me  the  geognost,"  but  it  is  common  as  the  object  of  verbs,  after  adjec- 
tives and  numerals  :  3c^  VxiV  euc^,  ne^mt  eu(^  meiner  an  (F.  1875).  The  un- 
inflected  possessive  mein,  bein  are  by  some  interpreted  as  predicate  genitives, 
e.  g.,  ber  Seeder  ifl  betn  (Sch.).  As  it  is  much  more  probable  that  the  posses- 
sive adjectives  were  used  as  genitives  of  the  personal  pronoun  than  vice 
versa,  this  interpretation  is  hardly  correct.     (See  441,  a.) 

233.  The  personal  pronouns  always  accompany  the  verb. 
In  the  imperative  „(Sic"  always  stands,  but  tu  and  i^r  only  for 
emphasis:  Sie^et  eure  ^einte  (B.).  33Ieiben  @ie  gefiilligfl.  See 
F.  1908. 

1.  In  poetry,  colloquially,  and  in  merchants'  letters  the  pronoun  is 
often  omitted :  S3in  trebcr  t^raulein,  ttjebcr  fc^on,  fann  ungeleitet  nac^  ^aufe  gc^n 
(F.  2608).  See  F.  3429.  3^r  Sertea  (viz.,  Sc^rci&en)  i)om  18ten  biefe^  (viz., 
^Wonat^),  ^afee  empfangcn.  Notice  the  set  phrases  Vxitt,  I  pray  ;  banfe,  thank 
you  ;  gefc^weige  (conjunction,  "  say  nothing  of  "),  before  which  i&j  has  to 
be  supplied.  %^\x\.  nic^ti?,  ber  3ube  wirb  »erbrannt  (Le.),  no  matter,  the 
Jew  .  .  . 

2.  Colloquially  the  subject,  if  a  noun,  may  be  repeated  in  the  shape  of 
a  pronoun,  as  in  Eng. :  ber  ^ir(^t)of,  er  liegt  xok  am  Sage  (G.).    See  244,  3. 

234.  The  pronouns  of  the  third  person  have  demonstra- 
tive and  determinative  force.  (Compare  the  cognate  Latin 
IS,  ea,  id.)  Hence  if  they  refer  to  lifeless  objects  or  abstract 
nouns,  they  rarely  stand  in  the  G.  and  D.  cases,  but  they  are 
supplanted  by  the  regular  demonstrative  pronouns  or,  if  gov- 
erned by  prepositions,  by  ta(r),  ^in,  ^er  +  the  preposition. 
Ex.:  Tern  2teb(^en  feinen  (Sruf !  3(^  mill  fcation  ntcfct^  t)orcn  (F. 
2104).  .^abt  eud)  »or^er  n?o^(  prdpariert  (F.  1958).  ^Idetn  i(^  c^\Oi\\\>\ 
tu  ^dftft  itid^t  ijiel  taoon  (viz.,  ^on  ter  Sfleligion)  (F.  3418). 

1.  Also  es3  (A.)  is  thus  supplanted,  when  referring  to  an  individual 
object:  2Bo  liegt  9)ari^  ?  .  .  .  S)en  finger  brauf  (not  auf  e(J)  ba*^  ne^men  wir 
(Arndt).  9?enn'^  ©littf!  ^erj !  Siek  !  ®ott !  id)  ^abe  feinen  9?amen  bafitr  (F. 
3455-6),    tennj!  bu  Sonbon?    33efuc^e  bafTelbc  iebenfaE^. 


84  CONCORD   OF   PROl^OUN"   AND   NOUN.  [2-^5^ 

Concord  of  Pronoun  and  Noun. 

235.  The  pronoun  of  the  third  person  agrees  with  the 
noun  which  it  represents  in  gender  and  number.  The  con- 
cord of  the  pronoun  with  the  natural  and  grammatical  gender 
has  been  treated,  see  165,  166;  also  the  neuter  sg.  e^  repre- 
senting a  plural  and  any  gender,  see  168. 

On  the  use  of  „e^", 

236.  1.  (S^  is  the  indefinite  subject  of  impersonal  verbs 
denoting  states  of  the  weather  and  other  natural  phenomena, 
e.  g,,  eg  regnet,  tonnert,  bli^t,  fcbneit,  ^agelt,  ti  ^at  gegla'tteift,  eg  tagt, 
eg  wintert,  eg  tunfelt,  tammert,  taut,  etc. 

2.  (Eg  is  made  the  indefinite  subject  of  verbs,  not  really  im- 
personal :  (5g  fdjlagt  elf;  eg  brennt,  eg  llopft,  flingelt,  eg  gebt  log, 
Idutet;  also  in  the  passive  and  reflexive:  eg  njirt  getanjt,  gcfungen, 
gefpielt ;  compare  man  tanjt,  man  ruft.  (Eg  ge^t,  fpielt  ftdJ  l)ter  gut 
=  it  is  good  walking,  playing  here.  SBoMn  foil  eg  nun  ge^n 
(F.  2051). 

a.  Such  an  eg  is  used  by  poets  to  give  a  vagiie,  mysterious,  ghostly 
impression.  Schiller's  wS^auc^er,"  Goethe's  „^rd)5cttlieb"  and  ^Jotcntanj" 
are  full  of  them :  Unb  alg  er  im  rolUigen  ©Alumtner  lac;,  bewegt  e5  ftc^  unter  bent 
SSette  (G.).  The  eg  (treated  so  far)  except  in  the  passive  and  reflexive  verb- 
forms  cannot  be  omitted  Hke,  for  instance,  the  expletive  ^eg"  sub  3,  5. 

3.  (Eg  is  made  the  grammatical  subject  of  a  verb,  when  the 
logical  subject  foUows  later:  @g  jogen  trei  ^Burfdje  mo^l  iikr  ten 
0l^ein  (Uh.).  (Eg  fc^ritt  i^m  fnfcfc  vxx  ©eite  fcer  bliilente  ®enog 
(Uh.).     SeeF.  3490-1;  3674-77. 

The  logical  subject  cannot  be  another  pronoun,  e  g.,  eg  war  i^,  eg  traren 
<Ste,  as  in  Eng.  "  it  was  I,"  "  it  was  you,"  which  is  a  late  construction. 

a.  In  ballads  and  other  folk-lore  this  e8  is  not  required  and  inversion  is  still  possi- 
ble, as  was  the  rule  in  O.  H.  G.,  without  eg  at  the  head  of  the  sentence.  For  after  all, 
c8  was  here  used  not  merely  to  denote  an  indefinite  subject,  but  to  account  for  an  inver- 
sion which  had  no  apparent  cause.  It  is  an  "  expletive  "  and  superfluous  as  soon  as 
any  other  part  of  the  sentence  stands  at  the  head  bringing  about  the  inversion.  It  is 
vftenest  translated  by  "th^re."    Gteruum  tales  begin  „^^  roar  einmat  .  .  .  "/  "There 


237]  STN^TAX  OF  THE   REFLEXIVE  PROKOUlf.  85 

was  once  .  .  .  " .  Qa'i)  ein  ^na6'  cm  5fio§Iein  fte^n  (G.).  ©tettt'  ein  ffnafee  fic^  mir  an  bic 
©eite  (id.).  The  construction  ic^  bin  eS,  3^r  feib  e§,  "  you  are  it,"  as  in  Ags.  and  as 
English-speaking  children  still  say,  is  already  the  rule  in  O.  H.  G.  Nor  can  we  say 
in  German  „i(^  6in  ei"  and  „©ie  finb  er,"  but  ic^  6tn  eS,  ba^  bin  ic^,  bcr  bin  i^,  ic^  bin 
berjenige,  reelf^ec  .  .  .  ,  I  am  he  who  .  .  . 

4.  Peculiar  is  the  impersonal  „e^  QkU,"  "  there  are  "  or  "  is," 
which  is  not  a  very  old  phrase,  but  rare  in  M.  H.  G. ,  in  which 
e^  with  pi.  verb  was  even  possible. 

„(i^"  is  here  the  indefinite  subject  and  has  taken  the  place  of  the  more 
definite  „h<x^'^  or  a  noun,  which  "gave,"  "  furnished,"  "  produced"  a  cer- 
tain thing.  Hence  „t^  giebt"  is  always  followed  by  the  accusative :  „ti 
giebt  <B(i^lao,i,"  "  Somebody  is  giving  or  will  give  somebody  a  whipping." 
(£i,  ha  gaB^iS  weftfdrfc^en  (S^infen  (Scheffel).  «(£(3  giebt"  is  not  well  followed 
by  a  noun  in  the  sg.  denoting  one  object  or  individual,  e.  g.,  ©^  gicM  |ier 
einen  ^unh,  but  by  nouns  in  the  pi.,  by  abstract  and  material  nouns :  (£d 
giebt  feinen  2u\aU  (Sch.).    See  F.  1118. 

5.  Sg  is  used  as  the  subject  of  impersonal  verbs  followed  by 
an  objective  personal  pronoun  (D.  or  A.),  denoting  states  of 
mind  and  body:  Sg  tiirftet  mi(^,  eg  ^ungert  i^n,  eg  reut  mi^,  eg  i|t 

If  the  objective  pronoun  or  any  other  part  of  speech  precede  the  verb, 
e!^  is  not  necessary,  but  it  may  be  retained.  Ex. :  3c&  fci^Wbrc  eu(^  ju,  mir 
ifl^ij  aU  mt  ein  Zxanm  (F.  2040).  ®tr  tr»trb  gewi^  etnntal  M  betner  ®ottai^nli(i)^ 
!eit  knge  (F.  2050).     mix  x\t  fc^Iec^t  ju  mute,  "  I  do  not  feel  well." 

6.  Sg  stands  further  as  indefinite  predicate  and  as  indefinite 
object.  See  204.  3^  tiefem  (Sinne  fannft  tu'g  tuagen  (F.  1671). 
See  further,  F.  2012-14  ;  2080.  (5ie  meint,tu  feift  entflo^n;  unD 
^a\b  ml  ^alh  6i|l  tu  eg  fd^on  (F.  3331-2). 

In  the  last  illustration  and  in  similar  ones  e^,  if  translated  at  all,  may 
be  rendered  by  "so"  :  ©ie  finb  wo^  miibe ?  D  nein,  aber  i(^  Mn  e^  gewefen, 
=  I  was  (so). 

Syntax  of  the  Reflexive  Pronoun. 

237.     The  reflexive  pronoun  always  refers  to  the  subject: 

Sg  ift  ter  So^n  ter  Xemut,  tie  fic^  felbft  kjmungen  (Sch.).  !Die  tiat 
p^  iegU(^eg  eriau&t  (id.). 


86  SYi^TTAX   OF  THE  RECIPROCAL  PR0N0U:N^. 


[238- 


1.  The  dative  was  already  lost  in  O.  H.  G.  In  M.  H.  G.  the  use  of 
ftd^  as  dative  is  very  rare.  Luther's  Bible  is  still  full  of  the  dative  of  the 
personal  pronoun  for  the  reflexive,  e.  g ,  2)ic  ^ciben,  ba  jie  ba^  ®efe^  nic^t 
^aben,  fiub  {\k)  i^nen  felbfl  ein  ®cfe^.  2)ie  2Bei^^eit  laffet  i|r  fagcn,  =  wisdom 
will  take  advice.  ®ott  fc^uf  ben  3Kenf(^en  i^m  jum  ^ilbe.  Lessing  has:  SSer 
ft(^  ^naU  unb  gait  i^m  felbfl  ju  leben  nid^t  entfc^Ue^en  fann,  ber  lebet  anberer  ©flav' 
auf  tmmer.  But  this  «{bm«  stands  also  because  there  is  already  one  ftd).  It 
is  very  rare  in  the  classics  and  does  not  occur  in  the  spoken  language. 

2.  ©elbj^,  felber  strengthens  the  reflexive  pronoun  and  prevents  its  con- 
founding with  the  reciprocal.  For  examples  see  above.  But  felb|l  (fclber) 
is  far  from  as  common  as  the  Eug.  self  (selves). 

Syntax  of  the  Reciprocal  Pronoun. 

238.  As  such  are  used  un^,  iVi6^,  fiA,  both  in  the  accusative 
and  dative  :  UnC  (\k)  nidten  fi(^  (D.)  gu  unD  griif'ten  fid)  (A.) 
freuncltd^  im  Spiegel  (H.  and  D.,  VII.  42).  3C.enn  ft^  tie  giirfteit 
befe^ben,  miiffen  tie  Xiener  fic^  morben  unb  toten  (Sch.). 

But  if  any  ambiguity  arises,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  the  unvarying 
form  einanber  or  the  inflected  eincr  (ber  eine)  ben  onbern  referring  to  masc. 
nouns,  bie  eine  bie  anbere  referring^  to  fem.  nouns,  bie  einen  bie  anbern  pi.  of 
both,  are  used  instead  of  them  and  even,  though  tautologically,  in  addition 
to  them.    Ex.:  unb  liebeu  un^  unter  einanber  (B.).    <B\t  fpotten  ber  eine  "m  anbern. 

Syntax  of  the  Possessive  Pronouns. 

239.  The  possessive  pronoun  used  adjectively  agrees  with 
the  noun  Uke  any  other  adjective.  See  212.  The  uninflected 
forms  mcin,  bein,  fein  stand  in  the  predicate  and  can  be  subjects 
only  when  used  as  nouns  with  or  without  the  article,  e.  g., 
^ein  unb  I^etn  \\i  alle^  3^^^^^  Urfprung  (Prov.). 

1.  Standing  in  the  predicate,  therefore,  it  is  right  to  say  :  !t)ad  S5u(b 
ifl  mein,  meine^,  ba^  meine,  ba^  meintge.  As  subjects  referring  to  ba^  SBud^  : 
5Weine^,  ba^  meine,  ba^  meinige  ijl  »erlorcn,  =  mine  is  lost. 

2.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  right  possessive  be  used  when  per- 
sons are  addressed  with  <Sie,  bu,  i^r  (3br).  5^r  refers  to  (Sie,  bein  to  bU; 
euer  (£uer)  to  i^r  (3^r),  e.g.,  Bit  ^aben  S^re  grau  SKuUer  »erloren?    2Bo^in 


242]  SYNTAX   OF  THE   POSSESSIVE   PROI^OUNS.  87 

roirb  bic^  beine  SJermefTen^eit  nod)  fii^ren  ?    2)urc^  be«  ^anmi  Ubermut,  ben  3^r 
burd)  (£uer  SBrautgemoc^  jum  2;^rone  9efuf)rt  (Sch.). 

240.  Of  ter,  ^ie,  ta^  meine  (ter,  tie,  ta^  mein{c;e),  when  used 
substantively,  ter,  tie  9JJcine,  pi.  tie  ^Zeinen  (with  capital  let- 
ters), denote  persons,  viz.,  friends,  relatives,  etc. ;  ta^  9}Zeine 
or  tag  ^einige  denote  my  property,  duty,  share,  deserts. 

Ex. :  2)er  |)err  fennet  bie  (Seinen  (B.).  @ie  :^at  ba<S  3^rige  ert)alten  (her 
dowry).  tarbinaU  3<^  ^a^e  ba^  SJJetnige  get^an.  X^un  ®ie  ba^  3^re  (Sch.). 
2)iefen  SJJorgeit;  aU  ic^  ©ie  im  ^reife  ber  S^rigen  fatib  .  .  .  (id.).  "®ans  ber 
S^rige,"  «bie  Deinige,"  „bie  2)eiiie"  are  proper  letter-endings. 

241.  The  possessive  pronoun  must  be  repeated  like  the 
article  with  nouns  of  different  gender:  @ein  ^o^er  (3mQ,  feine 
etie  (^eftalt,  feine^  SJJunte^  2dd)e(n,  feiner  %nQtn  (3ma\t  .  ,  ,  (F. 
3395-8). 

242.  1.  As  fetn  and  i^r  are  both  reflexive  (referring  to  the  subject  of 
the  sentence)  and  non-reflexive  (referring  to  another  noun)  an  ambiguity 
may  arise,  which  should  be  avoided  by  using  the  demonstrative  pronouns 
instead  ;  either  beffen,  beren  always  preceding,  or  beffelben»  berfelbcn  either 
preceding  or  following  the  noun.  Ex. :  Siolanb  ritt  ^interm  S3ater  1^tx  mit 
beffen  ©^ilb  unb  ©(^werte  (Uh.).  ,Mit  feinem  <Sc^ilb"  would  have  meant 
Roland's  shield.  Compare  the  following  lines  of  the  same  poem,  in 
whicb  t^m  prevents  ambiguity :  01.  ritt  ^interm  Skater  ^er  unb  trug  i^m  feinen 
jlarfen  ©peer  pfamt  bem  fejlen  ©c^ilbe.  Compare  %xau  9L  9?.  ging  mit  ber 
^aui^^cilteritt  unb  i^rer  !Ric^te  nad)  bem  Wlaxtu,  i.  e.,  Mrs.  N.  N.'s  niece  ;  but 
mit  ber  ^aui3|alterin  unb  beren  9?i(^te,  i.  e.,  the  housekeeper's  niece,  (i^  eifre 
jeber  feiner  (the  father's)  unBejlodjenen,  »on  23orurteiIen  freien  2iebe  )x<x6)  (Le.). 

2.  The  possessive  of  the  3.  person  is  in  the  people's  language  often 
repeated  for  emphasis  after  a  genitive  of  possession  and  also  after  a 
dative  :  ,Mimm  S^etter  fein  ®arten."  Comp.  "  John  his  mark."  This  is 
not  to  be  imitated  though  it  occur  now  and  then  in  the  classics  and  quite 
frequently  in  the  18th  century :  Sfuf  ber  ^ortunrt  i^rem  ©cbtff  (Sch.) ;  be(3 
3IIo  feinem  ©tu^l  (id.).  3^r  artet  me^r  nac^  eure^  35ater0  ®eifl  aU  nac^  ber 
mmtx  i^rem  (id.).     See  180,  4. 

3.  The  definite  article  cannot  precede  the  attributive  possessive  pro- 
noun. 3enerr  biefer  and  such  adjectives  as  obgebad)ter,  ernjci^nter  seemingly 
do,  but  such  constructions  as  biefer  bein  ©o^n,  oBgebac^ter  mein  (S(^rei6er  are 
rather  appositional. 


88  SYN^TAX  OF  THE   DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUK.  [243- 

243.  1.  By  a  license  the  possessives  lose  inflectional  endings  in  such 
set  phrases  as  occur  in  Sd)  moc^te  brum  mein  Jag  nic^t  Uebcn  (F.  2920). 
Wltin  ScMag  bcnr  ic^  bran  (Sch.).  ^aV  t(^  hi^  boc^  mein  Sage  nic^t  gefeljen  (F. 
4440).  These  phrases  are  in  the  transition  stage  to  adverbs  and  the 
apostrophe  may  stand  or  not. 

2.  ®ein  is  in  proverbs  and  in  one  phrase  wfciner  3ctt"  =  "  in  due  time," 
"in  —  time,"  still  used  for  the  feminine  t|r,  a  remnant  of  the  earlier 
periods,  when  i^r  could  not  be  used  as  the  reflexive  possessive:  ®ein  Z^cx 
fennt  jebe  ^u^  (Prov.).  Untreue  fd)la9t  fetnen  eigenen  -^errn  (Prov.).  «<Seiner 
Beit"  is  an  adverbial  genitive,  in  which  feiner  has  become  non-reflexive 
so  that  it  apparently  stands  at  times  for  i|rer,  unfere^,  etc.  Reflexive  : 
„3lIIe<3  Ding  tt>a^rt  feine  QnV  (Hymn) ;  but  non-reflexive :  8ie  war  feiner  3eit 
(once)  eine  gro^e  ©angerin. 

Compare  the  relation  of  Eng.  "  his"  and  "  its."  The  latter  sprang 
up  in  Shakspere's  time.  "  Its"  is  the  genitive  of  "it."  In  Sh.  "  his" 
stands  frequently  where  later  •' '  its  "  is  used. 

3.  The  use  of  the  German  definite  article  where  in  Eng.  the  possessive 
is  used,  is  by  no  means  as  strict  and  as  common  in  the  spoken  language 
as  the  grammarians  would  have  us  believe.  Take  for  instance  :  9liein 
armer  ^opf  ifl  mir  »erriicft.  9)?ein  armer  <Sinn  x\t  mir  jeriliicft  (F.,  I.  3383-6). 
©olang  tc^  mtc^  noc^  frtfc^  auf  meinen  SBeinen  fu^le,  genugt  mir  biefer  ^notenflocf 
(F.  3838-9).     See  154. 

In  the  17th  century  „^^"  was  used  also  for  all  persons.  "  Simplicissimus  "  is  full 
of  this  misuse. 

Syntax  of  the  Demonstrative  Pronoun. 

244.  ^  c  r,  t)  i  e,  i  a^,  always  accented,  points  out  without 
reference  to  nearness  in  time  or  space.  It  is  generally  well 
translated  by  ^'that,"  also  by  "this,"  and  bj  a  personal 
pronoun. 

Ex.:  t)tm  S5oIfe  ^ier  (this)  ttJirb  icbcr  Sag  ein  ?5efl  (F.  2162).  Slber,  tt>ie 
id)  mic^  fe^nc  bic^  ju  fc^auen,  ^ak  i(|  »or  b  e  m  (that)  9)?enfc^en  (Mephistopheles) 
ein  ^etmlid^  ®rauen  (F.  3480-1).  D  glittfltc^  b  e  r  (he),  ben  i^r  klc^rt !  F.  1981). 
2)er  (for  her)  ^ab'  ic^  bic  ^reube  serHttert  (Bo.).  SBel^c  b  em,  ber  33oltair(en)a 
<5d)riften  iibcr^au^t  nic^t  mit  bem  ffej^ttfc^en  ®eifl  Itefl,  in  iijelc^cm  er  einen  3;eil  bet' 
fclben  ge[d^riet»en  (Le.). 

1.  The  genitives  be^,  beffcn,  bercn  sg.  fem.,  berer  and  beren,  pi.,  are  used 
substantively  as  follows : 


245]  SYKTAX   OF  THE   DEMOKSTRATIVE   PROKOUI^.  89 

a.  !I)c§  is  arcliaic,  but  occurs  in  compounds  like  be^^alb,  bc^Wegcn,  ber^* 
gejlalt,  etc.,  e.g.,  !De^  freut  ft(^  ba^  entmenfc^te  9)aar  (Sch.).  Sir  jtnb  ber  feince 
wert,  bai3  mx  bitten  (Lu.),  We  are  worthy  of  none  of  those  (things),  etc. 

6.  !Deffen,  beren  G.  sg.  fern,  and  G.  pi.,  are  used  when  they  have  the 
force  of  possessives  (see  242). 

c.  The  present  usage  favors  beret/  G.  pi.,  referring  to  persons  and  beren, 
beffen  referring  to  things.  But  the  classics  do  not  agree  with  this.  Gen- 
erally these  forms  are  antecedents  of  relative  pronouns.  Ex. :  3e^o  fag' 
mir  btt!^  ©nbe  berer,  bie  »on  Slroja  fe^rten  (G.).  ^at  ba^  .S'inb  fd^on  3cit)ne?  S^ 
%<x\.  beren  »ier.  2)ort  fie^t  man  bie  ©liter  berer  (of  the  gentlemen,  lords)  i)on 
SBebelo^. 

2.  The  lengthened  forms  in  -en  and  -er  sprang  up  as  early  as  the  15th  century  both 
in  the  article  and  in  the  pronoun.  Luther  has  „benen,"  D.  pi.,  but  the  short  genitives 
„be6"  and  ,,bev."  In  the  18th  century  they  lost  -er  and  -en  again,  owing,  no  doubt,  to 
the  desire  of  distinguishing  between  article  and  demonstrative,  and  between  the  sub- 
stantive and  adjective  uses  of  the  latter.  Goethe  has  still  „unb  t5on  benen  a)2en^c&en  bie 
fie  befonberS  \^a%tn."  Present  usage,  however,  requires  the  short  forms  of  the  pro- 
noun, when  used  adjectively. 

3.  Notice  the  frequent  emphatic  force  of  the  pronoun,  e.  g.,  SSom  JRec^te,  baS  mit  un6 
geborcn  ift,  won  b  e  m  ift  letbcr  ntc  bie  grage  (F.  1978-9). 

1^  i  efer,  jen  er, 

245.  'Diefer  points  out  what  is  near  in  time  and  space,  jetter 
what  is  remoter.  Diefer  is  "the  latter,"  jener,  "the  former." 
They  are  used  substantively  and  adjectively  :  2)iefeg  jungc 
^^rauengimmer  ))<ki  ©efii^l  wnl  ©timme  (Le.).  2^iefer  fn'xVCi  trocfen, 
ttja^  jener  feu(^t  begekt,  i)iee  33latt  ^ier  —  tiefe^  willft  tu  geltenl) 
vxa^itx^'^.  (Sch.). 

1.  3)a^,  bie^  like  e^,  but  less  frequently,  can  be  the  indefinite  subjects 
of  neuter  verbs.  See  236.  E.  g.,  2)a«  ill  bie  ^j^agb  be«  ^a^Ux^.  ®a«  ifl 
ein  TOeifer  SJater,  ber  fein  eigen  ^inb  fennt  (Sch.).  2)ie<S  tjl  bie  5lrt  mit  ^exen  um=' 
juge^n  (F.  2518).     The  verb  may  be  in  the  pi.     See  313. 

2.  ©ie^  unb  bai?,  bie^  unb  fene^  have  the  force  of  «trgenb  ein,"  e.g.,  9Bir 
ftnb  nic^t  me'^r  betm  erf^en  %\<x^,  brum  benfen  \mx  gem  an  bieig  unb  ba(3  (Song). 
Wnb  er  jlredte  oli  ^nak  bie  |)anbe  nic^t  au(3  na^  biefem  unb  jenem  (H.  and  D. 
V.  64). 

3.  2)iefer  is  strengthened  by  ^ter  ;  ber,  jener  and  baig  by  ba,  e.g.,  9)?tt 
bcm  ba  tt>erbett  <£ie  nic^t  fertig  (Sch.).    3ener,  in  the  sense  of  "  the  other  "  and 


90  SYl^TAX   OF  THE   DEMONSTRATIVE   PROJfOUN.         [246- 

"  to  come,"  win  {ener  Qdt",  in  jenem  2ekn.    (B^affpere^^  tSefpenfl  fiimmt  ivirfUc^ 
aui  jcncr  2Belt  (Le.). 

246.  When  not  referring  to  persons  ^ier  +  preposition 
may  take  the  place  of  tiefer,  and  fca  +  preposition  the  place  of 
ber  and  jener,  e.  g.,  2Cer  fonft  ift  fc^ul^  taran  aU  i|r  in  SSien  ?  (Sch.). 
Datton  fc^metgt  De^  Sanger^  ^oflic^feit  (?).  ipierna^  (according  to 
this)  mu§  tie  Se^art  eine  gang  antere  getvefcn  fein* 

1.  Notice  the  two  strong  forms  in  Lessing's  5lEe^  biefe^,  feine  ©rftnbitngen 
unb  bie  l^iflorifi^en  SWaterialien,  fnetet  er  benn  in  cinen  fein  langen,  fein  fc^wer  ju  faf^ 
fenben  9?oman  jufammen.  For  an  tait  toa^  ...»  »on  bem,  'ma^  ...  no 
barannja^  .  ,  .,ba*onwa^  .  .  .  should  be  substituted,  though  this  is  done 
colloquially.    „Wix  ba(|ten  baran^  xoa^  bu  je^t  anfangen  Wiirbe^"  is  not  elegant. 

247.  T)tx-,  bie-,  b a  s  j e n  i  g  e  is  generally  used  substan- 
tively followed  by  a  relative  clause  or  a  genitive.  Used  adjec- 
tively  it  stands  for  ber,  bie,  lai  when  a  relative  clause  follows, 
e.  g.,  tteienigen  SJZenfc^en,  irelcbe  .  »  .  The  best  usage  accents 
ber,  bie,  "s^a^.     Used  adjectively  it  has  only  medium  stress. 

Ex. :  ^Diejenigen  ber  ^naten,  welc^e  i^re  STufgaben  nid^t  gemac^t  ^amn,  mu^ten 
nac^ft|en  (stay  after  school).    Ciebet  biejenigen,  mld^t  tu6)  serfolgen  (B.). 

248.  T)  e  r-,  b  i  e-,  b  a  f  f  e  I  b  e  denotes  identity.  It  refers 
to  something  known  or  mentioned.  It  is  used  equally  well 
substantively  or  adjectively.  It  can  be  strengthened  by 
„e6en'':  5JJit  alter  Sreue  ijertrent'  id^  eure  ©aben;  ber  !Durftige  fofl  ftc^ 
berfelben  crfreuen  (H.  and  D.  II.,  74-5). 

1.  2)er  ncimlic^c  also  denotes  identity,  but  is  not  written  as  one  word. 
wDerfelbige"  is  rarer  than  berfelbe.  2Bar  ba^  nid^t  ber  Dicnflmann  (porter), ber 
bie  5lu(Jtt)anberer  betrogen  |at  ?    S)er  namli(^e. 

2.  ©elbig  without  ber  is  rare,  e.g.,  ©elbigci?  weip  ic^  ge»i§  (Heyse). 

249.  (S  e  t  b,  f  e  I  b  e  r,  f  e  I  b  ft  distinguishes  one  object  from 
another.  It  strengthens  personal  and  reflexive  pronouns.  It 
is  made  emphatic  by  zhn,  also  in  the  phrase  ein(er)  unb  berfelbe. 
(Selber  and  felbft  do  not  differ  in  meaning,  but  in  use.    <£elkr  ia 


251]  SYNTAX  OF  THE   INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN.  91 

never  made  an  adverb  as-  feI6|l  is.  ©elBcr  always  follows  the 
word  it  qualifies,  thoiigli  it  need  not  stand  necessarily  directly 
after  it:  3^  K^^^^i^  or  |'el6ft  l)abe  t^n  ^efe^en»  2Ber  siveifelt,  ^at^an, 
tag  tbr  nid^t  (see  309,  2)  tie  S^rlid^feit,  tie  ®ro§mut  felber  feit  f 
(Le.)    2Cer  antern  tint  (^xubt  Qxahi,  fdUt  felbft  :^inein  (Prov.). 

1.  ©elbj^  lias  become  also  an  adverb  with  the  force  of  wfogar."  and  then 
stands  best  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  unaccented  :  ©etbj^  ein  fo 
^tmmUf(i)e^  ^aax  (viz.,  Psyche  and  Amor)  fanb  na(^  ber  2}erMnbung  fic^  ungletd) 
(G.).     . 

2.  Notice  the  compounds  bafelbfl,  :^te(r)felbfl,  in  that  or  this  very  place  ; 
also  the  force  of  „yon  [elbft"  in  :  Die  SWu^le  ge^t  nid)t  »on  felbjl  (of  its  own 
accord). 

For  fclb  witli  ordinals  see  229.  Alone  it  is  very  rare,  e.  g.,  totil  er  in 
felkm  (im  ^Jala'fte)  alte  urn  fid)  tierfammelt  ^atte  (Le.). 

250.  ©old)  means  +  "  such."  It  describes  what  is  pointed 
out.  It  is  used  adjectively  and  substantively:  ^ilfreid^e  iOladste  I 
einen  fold)en  (S}eg)  ^eigt  mir  an,  ten  id)  »ermag  ^u  ge^en  (Sch.).  S3o 
njar  tie  Uberlegung,  aU  mir  ♦  ♦  .  folc^e  Tiadcjt  gelegt  in  fold)e  ^ant 
(id.). 

1.  The  use  of  folc^  for  the  personal  pronoun  or  ber-,  bie-,  baffetbe  is  not 
good  although  found  now  and  then  in  the  classics,  e.  g.,  ^U  fie  bie  9)loo3*' 
^iitte  errei(^ten,  fanben  fie  fol^e  auf  baa  lufligile  (see  300,  2)  au^gefc^mitcf t  (G.)- 

2.  For  folc^  ein,  fo  ein  is  a  frequent  equivalent.  It  is  more  common  in 
the  spoken  language  than  foI(^  ein.  Lessing  and  Goethe  are  very  fond  of 
it,  e.g.,  6o  ein  Dlc^ter  \\t  ©'^affpere  unb  ©^affpere  fafl  ganj  attein  (Le.).  3^ 
lam  nit(|  nic^t,  me  fo  ein  Sort^elb,  fo  ein  Jugenbfc^ma^er,  an  meinem  SKitten  war*" 
men  unb  ®eban!en  (Sch.). 

,,©0  ein"  does  not  come  from  „^old)  ein,"  but  from  ein  '\o  before  adjective  and  noun : 
„ein  io  I;o^ei-  SEuvm"—  „jo  ein  ^o^er  Surm,"  then  „fo  ein  SEuvm." 

Syntax  of  the  Interrogative  Pronoun. 

251.  3B  e  r,  4-  "  who,"  "  which,"  and  m  a  ^,  +  "  what,"  are 
used  substantively  only:  2Ga^  Mmmcrt  e^  bie  Scn?in,  ter  man  tic 
Sunken  rauM^in  tueffen  2Balte  fie  briiflt  (Le.).     '^nn,  mn  lieben  imi 


92 


SYNTAX   OF  THE   INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUN.         [253- 


'oott  euc|  am  meiften  (id.).    3Ca^  i(l  ter  langen  3itu  furaer  @inn  ? 
(Sch.). 

1.  Once  the  genitive  after  Jvcr  and  »a«  was  common.  253 er  is  almost 
entirely  supplanted  by  rod6)tx,  and  roai  by  toae  fiir  ein.  But  tt>ad  +  geni- 
tive, which  generally  looks  like  an  accusative,  still  remains  in  phrases 
like  )Qa&  2Bunber(^)  (Le.).  '^a^  be^  Zm\tU,  ma^  ^enfer^.  2Ba^  i)!  SSci^e^ 
bort  am  griinen  SBalbe  (G.).    See  181, 188. 

2.  9Bcm  only  refers  to  persons.  When  it  refers  to  things  or  whole 
sentences  n)o(r)  +  preposition  is  substituted.  2Bcju  ber  Sarm  ?  (F.  1322). 
SSoran  txkm]i  bu  ben  Dieb.     SSor  before  a  vowel,  too  before  a  consonant. 

3.  In  the  spoken  language  ,,'ma^'*  is  preceded  by  a  preposition  that 
does  not  govern  the  accusative:  ju  wa^,  mit  wa^;  but  tpomit,  idpju  are  pref- 
erable. The  classics  have  it  too.  Even  fiir  toai,  um  toa^,  burd^  roa^  are 
supplanted  by  tDofitr,  tuorum,  wobur*.  3u  ttad  bie  ^Joffe?  (G.)  Wlit  roa^ 
fann  ic^  aufir»arten  ? 

4.  2Ba^  in  the  sense  of  n?arum  and  trie  is  originally  an  absolute  accusa- 
tive, e.  g.,  9Ba^  jle^t  i^r  unb  legt  bie  ^anbe  in  (=  in  ben)  <5c^op  (Sch.).  SSad 
toirb  baa  ^erj  bir  fd^wer  (F.  2720). 

5.  Mark  the  interrogative  adverbs :  too,  +  where ;  n^ann,  +  when  ; 
Wic,  -f  how ;  »o(r)-  with  preposition ;  warum,  +  wherefore,  +  why,  only 
interrogative.     For  their  etymology  see  551. 

252.  3B  e  I  dj  means  -f  "  which  "  and  singles  out  the  indi- 
vidual, though  etymologically  it  inquires  after  the  quality. 
It  stands  adjectively  and  substantively:  Unfc  treldjer  i\V^,  ten  tu 
am  meiften  liebft?  (Sch.).     Selc^e^  Unge^eure  finnet  ibr  mix  an? 

(id.). 

In  exclamatory  sentences  wcld^  is  originally  interrogative,  often  fol- 
lowed by  ein  :  2Beld)  ein  Subein,  weld^  ein  ©ingen  wirb  in  unfcrm  ^aufe  fein  I 
(Song).     See  F.  742. 

253.  ©ag  fiir,  »a^  fiir  ein  inquires  after  the  nature 
and  qualities  of  a  person  or  thing.  2Ca^  fiir  always  stands 
adjectively,  toa^  fiir  ein  adjectively  and  substantively.  ®a^  is 
separable  from  fiir  ein.  Lessing  is  particularly  fond  of  this 
separation.     2Ba^  fiir  stands  before  the  singular  of  a  noun 


256]  SYNTAX   OF  THE   RELATIVE   PRONOUKS.  93 

denoting  material  and  before  a  collective  noun;  before  the 
plural  of  any  noun.  Sa^  fitr  ein  inquires  also  after  an  indi- 
ndual. 

Ex. ;  2Ba<3  fiir  2Betn  ifl  bteiJ  ?  SKasg  fur  iBerge  ♦  .  .  trennen  un^  bcnn  noc^? 
^\e.).    S5Ja^  in  ^a^lon  id)  bir  fiir  einen  fc^ijnen  ©toff  gefauft  (id.). 

Syntax  of  the  Relative  Pronouns. 

254.  There  being  vo  orieinal  relative  pronouns,  the  other  pronouns  were  used  as 
"nch  or  conjunctions  like  so,  dar,  da,  wide  (see  below)  connected  coordinate  sentences, 
one  of  which  later  became  subordinate.  The  first  pronoun  used  as  a  relative  was  bcv, 
"Ote,  ba^,  in  O.  H.  G.  SBcIc^er,  trer,  ma^  developed  into  relative  pronouns  gradually.  First 
they  were  made  indrfiuile  pronouns  by  means  of  the  particle  so,  O.  H.  G.  so  kwelich(so), 
«o  hwer{so),  so  hwasiso)  >  M.  H.  G.  swelich^  swer,  swas  —  whosoever,  whatsoever  > 
"iV.  H.  G.  iBcIcljer,  nsev,  a)a6,  which  can  be  strengthened  by  nur,  au(^,  immev  (=  e\  er).  To 
oay  therefore  that  the  interrogative  is  used  as  the  relative  is  hardly  correct,  though,  no 
doubt,  the  indirect  question  had  its  influence  in  the  coincidence  of  the  forms  of  the 
mterrogative  and  indefinite  relative  i)ronouns.  The  demonstrative  ber,  tie,  ba^  intro- 
duced the  coordinate  clause,  which  afterwards  became  subordinate;  and  clause  and 
pronoun  were  then  called  relative.    SSclcljer  is  only  of  the  16th  century. 

255.  X  e  r  and  tr  c  I  ct?  e  r  are  equivalent.  After  personal 
pronouns  ter  is  preferable.  Eupbony  should  decide  which  is 
to  be  used.  Sin  grauengimmer,  ta^>  renft,  tft  ebcn  fo  e!el  al^  ein 
^Jiann,  fcer  jtd)  fd^minft  (Le.).  2C^eI(^er  is  preferable  after  ter^ 
jenige.  ITie  following  sentence  is  bad  :  Xie,  lit  lit  9)Zutter  Der 
Mincer  mar,  ift  gejiorBen. 

1.  Of  the  four  relatives  ber,  tijelc^-,  wet,  tt>a^  only  it>  e  I  d^-  can  also  be 
used  adjectively,  the  other  three  only  substantively.  The  genitive  of 
ber,  bie,  ba^  is  always  beffen,  bereit,  sg.  and  pi.,  never  berer.  Ex.:  2Ber  fein 
®efe^  ad)tct,  ijl  ebcn  fo  ntdc^tig  al5  t»er  fein  ®efe^  ^at  (Le.)  2lm  ^Wontag,  an 
»el(^em  Sage  xoxx  abreifien  .   .  ♦    But  this  is  not  very  elegant. 

256.  Xer  and  ii^el(^cr  will  take  an 3^  antecedent  soever. 
But  wer,  i»a^,  having  sprung  from  indefinite  and  compounded 
pronouns,  require  none.  2Ber  admits  of  no  antecedent  at  all ; 
lua^  may  have  any  other  neuter  pronoun,  an  adjective  (pref- 
erably in  the  superlative),  or  a  whole  clause,  e.g.,  ^iir  n?a^ 
brein  gel)!  unc  nicbt  trein   (ins  ©e^irn)  ge^t,  ein  pradtig  ©ort  ju 


94  SYNTAX   OF  THE   RELATIVE   PRONOUNS.  [257- 

ttenften  f^e^t  (F.  1952-3).  Mt^  m^  ift,  ifi  ^entiinfttg  (Hegel). 
2Bag  tu  erer6t  »on  teinen  35atern  H\t,  ermirb  e^  iim  e^  gu  6efif;en  (F. 
682-3).  i:em  iperrtic^ften,  ii?av?  au^  ter  ®eift  empfangen,  trangt 
immer  fremc  unt  fremter  ©toff  fid)  an  (F.  634-5). 

1.  ©r,  njer;  ber  9J?ann  njer;  bcr,  wer  are  impossible.  But  Goethe  has  (in 
the  "  Walpurgisnacht "),  F.  3964 :  ©o  S^re  bem,  went  (£f)re  gebii^rt.  The 
proverb  says :  „(£f)rc,bem  S^re  gebu^rt,"  the  Bible  „(£^re,bcm  bie  d^xt  gcM^rt." 

2.  S55a0  referring  to  a  substantive  and  ir»elc^e^  referring  to  a  whole 
clause  are  not  present  usage,  though  the  classics  use  them  so.  2)ie  5llten 
fannten  hai  ^tng  nic^t,  wa^  mx  ^btlici)!eit  nennen  (Le.).  ^on  fritter  Sugcnb  an 
|atte  mix  unb  mclner  <Sd^tt)e|ler  ber  23ater  felb|l  im  2;anjen  Unterricl)t  gegekr.,  ireld^eg 
cinen  fo  emfl^aften  Mam  tounbcrltd^  gcnug  Mtte  fleiben  frilen  (G.). 

3.  If  wer  has  a  seeming  antecedent  the  latter  stands  after  the  clause. 
The  antecedent  is  nothing  but  the  subject  of  the  main  clause  repeated 
for  emphasis  in  the  shape  of  another  pronoun.  If,  however,  iver  and  its 
seeming  antecedent  do  not  stand  in  the  same  case,  the  latter  is  indis- 
pensable. Ex. :  9Ber  9>ec^  angretft  befubelt  jtc^  (Prov.).  2Bcr  iiber  getriffe  Dinge 
ben  25ertlanb  nic^t  verliert,  ber  l^at  feinen  ju  »erlieren  (Le.).  2Bcr  sielesS  bringt,  njirb 
mand^em  etwa^  bringen  (F.  97).  But  SBcr  e  t  n  2J?al  lugt,  bem  glaubt  man  nt^t 
«nb  wenn  er  aud)  bie  2Ba^r:^cit  fprid^t  (Prov.).  SSer  ba  ^a\,  bem  ttjirb  gegebcn  (B.). 
The  same  is  true  of  wa§ :  2BaS  man  ni*t  weip,  ba^  eben  braud)te  man  unb  wad 
man  n)ei§,  fann  man  nic^t  brauc^en  (F.  1066-7).  ^rii^  ubt  jl*,  tt)a^  ein  3)?et|ler 
toerben  will  (Sch ).     For  the  gender  in  this  illustration  see  168. 

4.  The  old  short  form  m^  is  now  archaic  except  in  tt)  c  ^  ^  a  I  b/  w  e  ^^ 
JDcgen :  SQJe^  S3rot  \^t\ft,  be^  £ieb  ic^  jtnge  (Prov.). 

257.  If  the  dative  and  accusative,  governed  by  a  preposi- 
tion, do  not  refer  to  a  person,  Wo,  now  rarely  ta,  with  that 
preposition,  are  generally  substituted  :  ^i6>t^  ift  B^f'^U  >  «^»^ 
ttjenigften  ta^,  n?o^on  tie  5l^fid)t  fo  flar  in  tie  5luf^cn  leud^tet  (Le.). 

1.  ©0,  the  oldest  relative  conjunction,  has  now  been  crowded  out  from 
the  spoken  language,  though  it  was  very  common  in  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries:  3)ie  linfe  ^anb,  baju  baa  ^aupt,  fo  er  i^m  abgetiauen (Uh.).  S3on 
alien,  fo  ba  famen  (Bii.). 

258.  The  relative  adverbs  to  o,  "  where  "  and  b  a  (colloqui- 


261]  SYNTAX   OF  THE  INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS.  95 

ally);  ta,  tt>ann,  n?enn,  nj  o,  "when";  tute,  "as  "take  the 
place  of  a  relative  pronoun  governed  by  a  preposition  when 
they  refer  to  nouns  denoting  time,  place,  and  manner. 

Ex. :  ^ennji  bu  basS  Oanb  wo  ble  Sitronen  Hit^n  ?  (G.).  S^  gibt  im  9)?enf(|cn^ 
le'6en  SlugenMicfc,  wo  er  bent  SSeltgeiil  ncif er  tfl  aU  fonjl  (Sch.).  3n  biefem  5lugcn^ 
blidEe,  ba  wir  reben,  ijl  fein  Xi^xa'm  nte^r  in  ber  ©c^weijer  Sanbe  (id.).  w1)ie  9lrt 
unb  Seife  tt>ie,"  "  the  manner  in  wliicli."  (w2Bie"  is  more  forcible  than  »m 
melc^er.")    D  fc^oner  J^ag,  wenn  enblic^  ber  ©olbat  in(3  Seben  '^eimfc^rt  (Sch.). 

1.  This  construction  is  old  only  with  the  demonstrative  adverbs  used 
as  relatives,  viz.,  da,  ddr,  danne.     5tQwo,  allba,  wofelbjl  are  archaic. 

Syntax  of  the  Indefinite  Pronouns.    . 

259.  Sin  and  etntge  can  precede  a  numeral  generally  fol- 
lowed by  a  noun.  They  mean  "  some,"  "or  so,"  "odd":  ein 
a6t  2:age,  a  week  or  so;  etnt^e  »ierjig  3<i^r,  forty  odd  years. 
The  order  may  also  be:  „ein  3^^^  fiinfje^n.'' 

1.  Grimm  thinks  this  phrase  has  lost  ^ober,"  as  if  it  meant  einen  Sag 
ober  je^n,  ein  3a^r  ober  fiinf^e^n.  No  doubt  ^^einige  ijievjig  Sa^r"  has  lost 
,,unb"  and  stands  for  einige  unb  »ierjig  3a^r,  forty  (and)  odd  years. 

260.  Sin,  etmag,  tua^,  n?er,  jemant,  ttjel(^e,  eintge 
can  be  strengthened  by  irgent  (compounded  of  io  -\-  hwar  and 
gin  =z  "ever,"  "where,"  "you  please,"  grm  corresponding  to 
L.  -cun).  For  the  origin  of  lua^,  mer,  m\^,  see  254.  2ld),  menn 
id)  etn?a^  auf  Cid^  fonnte !  "  if  I  could  influence  you  at  all  (F. 
3423).  2Cag  ankrg  fuc^e  ju  Begtttnen  (F.  1383).  Xk  Sag^  ift  t)oc^ 
immer  ma^  unb  etne  2lrt  ijon  ^rteg  (G.).  ^ier  finb  ^irf^en  ju  ijer^? 
faufen.  SBillj^  tu  welc^e  ?    ^aft  bu  trgenD  ma^  ^erloren  ? 

1.  They  stand  generally  only  in  the  nominative  and  accusative,  ©inig 
is  rare  in  the  singular,  and  for  it  irgenb  ein  is  better  used. 

261.  iK  I  {-.  The  following  examples  show  the  many  vari- 
ous forms  of  att-  ;  att  bag  ©elD,  aU  be^  @e(beg,  afle^  ))a^  ®elb,  wad 
foil  bag  atleg  ?     2tl(e  fangcn.     2IUe  ?f)?en[d)en  miiffen  |lev6en. 


96  SYNTAX  OP  THE  IKDEFIKITE  PROInTOUKS.  [262- 

1.  5[ffe  stood  iu  M.  H.  G.  only  after  prepositions  as  still  now,  e.  g.,  Bei 
atte  bem,  "  withal."  2)iir  wirb  »on  atte  bem  fo  bumm  (F.  1946).  The  form  alle 
before  the  article  and  not  preceded  by  a  preposition,  though  very  com- 
mon in  the  classics  and  in  the  spoken  language,  is  not  so  good  as  all  or 
aU  with  strong  endings,  e.g.,  5111  ber  (i5c^merj  (G.).  51II  or  allc  in  such 
phrases  as  ber  2Bein  if!  all,  "  there  is  no  more  wine,"  has  hardly  been  satis- 
factorily explained  yet. 

2.  Notice  the  following  meanings  ;  STUe  ©tunben  einen  ll'^ecloffcl  »olI,  "  a 
teaspoon  full  every  hour."  The  singular  in  the  sense  of  "every  "is 
rarer,  auf  atten  %oS[,  in  every  case.  Siller  3lnfang  i|l  fc^tver  (Prov.).  Sltte^ 
2)tn3  wa^rt  fcinc  Beit,  ®otted  Siefe  in  (£tt)tgfeit  (Hymn),  The  singular  in 
the  sense  of  Eng.  "  all "  is  archaic,  alien  2B inter  (Logau,  quoted  in  Grimm's 
Diet.),  all  winter.  For  all  day,  all  night,  we  say  best  bie  ganje  9?ad)t,  ben 
ganjen  %0i^.    Notice  also  in  aller  %x\x^,  "  very  early,"  in  aller  ©titte,  in  aUe  SBelt. 

3.  The  plural  of  jeber,  jebn^eber,  jcglic^er  is  rare.  It  is  expressed  by  walle." 
Even  the  singular  of  the  last  two  is  now  archaic  and  rare. 

262.  9Jl  a  It  (^  e  r  does  not  differ  from  the  Eng.  "  many  "  in 
use  and  force.  Compare  ein  mancter,  mattd)  einer,  mandjer  gute 
SJlann,  mait(^  ein  guter  5D^ann,  manege  fdjone  Slume, 

263.  55  i  e  I  and  n?  e  n  i  g,  denoting  the  individual  and  used 
substantively  denoting  persons,  must  be  inflected  ;  if  they 
denote  an  indefinite  number,  quantity,  mass,  they  are  gener- 
ally uninflected.  Xenn  ^ie(e  fint  berufen,  akr  tt?enige  \\nX)  auUx^ 
njd^let  (B.).  5BieI  nod^  ^aft  tu  von  mir  gu  ^oren  (Sch.).  ^toax  n?ci^ 
id)  »iel,  tod^  miJAte  ic^  alle^  jvijyen  (F.  601).  S^  ftutiercn  i)iel  Slmeri^; 
faner  in  I^eutfd^Iant. 

1.  Spieler,  -e,  -e^  denotes  "various  sorts,"  e.g.,  »teler  SBein;  in  composi- 
tion   sielerlei  SBein,    **  many  kinds  of  wine." 

A  fuller  tre£.tment  of  the  large  number  of  indefinite  pronouns  and  numerals  belongs 
rather  to  the  Dictionary. 


265]  SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB.  97 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   VERB. 

Classification   of   Verbs. 

264.  According  to  meaning  and  construction  the  verbs 
may  be  variously  divided  :  1,  into  independent  verbs;  2,  into 
the  small  class  of  tense  auxiliaries  and  the  modal  auxiliaries. 
See  267.  Again:  1,  into  persona/  verbs,  which  can  have  any 
person,  the  1.,  2.,  or  3.,  as  subject;  2,  into  impersonal  verbs, 
which  have  the  indefinite  subject  e^,  „evJ  rei^net."     See  236. 

The  personal  verbs  again  divide :  1,  into  neuter  or  subjective 
verbs,  as  tie.  @onue  fc^eint  (see  179);  2,  transitive  or  objective 
verbs,  the  direct  object  of  which  stands  in  the  accusative 
(transitive  proper,  see  198)  or  in  the  genitive  or  dative 
(called  also  in  trans.,  see  184,  190). 

As  subdivisions  of  transitive  verbs  may  be  regarded:  1,  the 
reflexive  verbs;  2,  the  causative. 

The  reflexives  again:  1,  into  reflexives  proper,  which  occur 
only  as  reflexives,  e.g.,  ficb  gramen,  to  pine;  ftd)  erbarmen,  to  feel 
pity;  2,  into  both  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs  used  re- 
flexively,  e.  g.,  fic^  trafd^en,  ^\6>,  ttereinen,  fid)  tot  Iad?cn. 

The  pronoun  is  always  in  the  accusative,  but  see  197. 

1.  Transitive  verbs  have  often  intransitive  or  neater  force,  but  there 
can  be  no  direct  object  then,  ^(n^  9)ferb  jie^t  ben  SBagen/  but  IDie  SBoIfcn 
jie^cn  am  |)immel.  Personal  verbs  can  also  be  used  without  a  logical  sub- 
ject ;  !Da^  SBaffer  rauf(|t,  but  (£«?  raufc^t  im  9iol)re.  Also  the  modal  auxilia- 
ries occur  still  as  independent  verbs ;  SIBa^  foil  ba^?  but  2Bo^in  foE  ber 
2)ieb  gefliic^tet  [ein?    See  267. 

Syntax  of  the  Auxiliaries. 
I.    ^  a  B  e  n   and  f  e  i  tt . 

265.  ^  aB  en  forms  the  compound  tenses,  active  voice: 

1.  Of  all  transitive  verbs  :  ic^  ^ak  getragen,  ic^  ^Be  Betedt,  ic^ 
|ak  angeflagt. 


98  SYNTAX   OF  THE  VERB— AUXILIARIES.  [266^ 

2.  Of  the  modal  auxiliaries,  of  reflexive  and  impersonal 
verbs  proper,  ^r  ^at  e^  nicfct  gemoc^t,  ^at  fid?  gemafcben,  e^  M 
geregnet,  e^  'i^at  mtcb  gereut* 

3.  Of  intransitive  verbs  which  have  no  direct  object,  at  most 
the  object  in  the  G.  or  D.  gr  kite  mcin  gefpottet,  cr  l}at  mir 
gefc^aret,  er  ^atte  geladjt,  gemeint,  gefcbtafen. 

4.  Of  (intransitive)  verbs  of  motion  when  the  mere  action 
within  a  certain  space,  the  effort,  and  its  extent  are  to  be 
emphasized,  without  reference  to  direction,  point  of  depar- 
ture or  destination.  21.  i)on  ipumboltt  Hi  i^iel  gcreift,  =  was  a 
great  traveler.  Xer  8ta(Ifned^t  i^at  eine  (Stunt e  l)in  unt  ijtv  gerittcn. 
Sr  ^atte  in  K^kn  ge^n  3^^re  gefa^ren  (Le.).  tai  Sdmm^en  Kit 
ge^iipft,  ter  gifc^  t)at  gefd^mommen.  Xa^  ^leine  (the  little  one)  ^at 
tiod^  nic  gegangen  (has  never  walked).  (Sopl)tc  Ijat  geHettert  unt 
jtc^  tie  ©c^iirge  ^erriiJcn.  'Der  ©c^neflldufer  ^at  fd'on  Idngft  gelaufen 
(finished  running  long  ago).  Good  usage  favors:  Tk  Ubr  t)at 
einmat  gegangen,  ahv  je^t  \kbt  fte  ftiU.  Tie  9)(uMe,  tie  SDZafdnne,  ta^ 
dial)  Ht  gegangen,  but  ift  is  frequently  used. 

5.  Of  ft^en,  ftekn,  liegen,  anfangen,  beginnen,  auf^cren.  But  in 
S.  G.  fein  is  more  common  and  it  is  also  found  in  the  classics. 
2Bo  !^a6t  i^r  gefefjen,  geftanten  ?     2Bann  i^at  tie  @dule  angefangen  ? 

266.     S  ein  forms  the  compound  tenses: 

1.  Of  all  verbs  of  motion,  except  some,  which  take  l^aben, 
when  action  simply  is  denoted.  See  265,  4.  These  take  fein 
when  the  direction,  points  of  departui'e,  destination  and  ar- 
rival are  mentioned.  These  circumstances  are  often  expressed 
by  inseparable  and  separable  prefixes  in  compound  verbs. 
Ex.  :  „Xer  Wai  ift  gefommen."  Sr  mirt  gefaden  fein,  =  he  proba- 
bly fell.  S^ir  Tint  fdjnell  ^inabgeftiegen.  Xie  Seefa^rer  [ml  auf  tcr 
Snfel  Sfi^e  gelantet.  Xie  ©tord^e  ftnfc  nad)  3uten  gejogen.  Xev 
<BiaUtm6^t  ift  in  einer  (Stunte  ^in  unD  ^er  geritten,  =  he  rode  to  a 
certain  place  (there)  and  back.  Xie  ^^einte  fmt  entfloh*n,  ent^^ 
laufen,  eingetroffen.    Sir  (int  fd^on  me^rere  iD^ale  umgejogcn  (moved). 


267]  STKTAX   OF  THE  VEKB — AUXILIARIES.  99 

2.  Of  certain  verbs  denoting  a  springing  into  being  or  pass- 
ing away,  a  transition  and  development,  growth  and  decay, 
often  expressed  by  er-,  i)er-,  jer-,  and  separable  prefixes.  Xie 
''MM)  ift  gefroren  (<  gefrieren,  but  e^  bat  gefroren  <  frieren,  there 
was  a  frost).  Da^  @ei(  ift  gerriffen.  ^er  (gc^nee  ift  gefcbmolgen. 
„I^er  33ruJer  ware  nid)t  geftorben."  Xa^  33aumc^cn  ift  gewad^fcn.  Tk 
reicben  2eute  ftnt  im  ^riege  oerarmt.  Xa^  Sid^yt  ift  erlofd^en.  Xic 
@c^ale  ift  gefprungen  (cracked).  Xer  Sebrling  n?ar  eingefd^lafen  (had 
fallen  asleep).  In  the  compound  verbs  it  is  just  this  prefix 
that  called  for  fein.  Compare  trinfen  —  ertrinfen,  fd^einen  —  er^ 
f(^einen,  tuacben  —  ermad^en,  ^ungern  —  »erl)ungem,  frieren  —  erfrieren. 

3.  Of  fein,  bleiben,  begegnen,  folgen,  gelingen,  gcfAe^en,  gliiden,  for 
which  it  is  hard  to  account  by  meaning,  but  see  283,  2.  Ex.: 
S^  ift  i^m  nidt  gelungen,  gegliidt.  Xa^  ift  fdson  alleg  Jageiucfen. 
Sin  I'ii^er  3:roft  ift  it)m  geblieben  (Sch.). 

4.  §a6en  has  gained  upon  feiii  in  German,  but  not  eo  much  as  English  "  to  have  "  upon 
"  to  be."  Sol^en  and  Oegegnen  were  once  generally  compounded  with  t)aljen.  Also  the  ten- 
dency to  use  intransitive  verbs  as  trausitives,  so  strong  in  Eng.,  has  increased  in  Ger- 
man. While  in  Eng.  one  can  '"  run  "  a  locomotive,  a  sewing  machine,  a  train,  a  ship, 
in  German  fu:^ren,  leiten,  in  @ang  lutngen,  gebraiict)cn,  or  the  verb  of  motion  +  la^en  or 
nta(^en,  will  have  to  be  used.  ®er  Sutjc^er  i)at  un6  fdjnelt  getal)ven.  ®er  ^pcftiUion  f)at  ben 
23agen  »ovgefaI}ren.    Wan  fonnte  bie  geucrfprii^e  ni(^t  in  ®ang  6ringen. 

5.  The  difficulty  as  to  the  use  of  ^aben  and  fctn  lies  after  all  mainly  in  the  way  in 
which  a  verb  is  used,  transitively  or  intransitively,  and  in  the  meaning.  The  student 
should  attend  particularly  to  these  points  and  not  be  too  timid,  as  in  many  cases  usage 
is  by  no  means  settled. 

As  to  the  omission  of  I)aben  and  fein  in  dependent  clauses,  see  346. 

II.     Special  Uses  of  the  Modal  Auxiliaries. 

This  subject  belongs  really  rather  to  the  Dictionary,  but  the  appreciation  and  trans- 
lation of  these  verbs  is  so  difficult  that  a  brief  treatment  of  them  is  given  here. 

267.  1.  ^  i3  n  n  e  n  denotes  ability  ;  !Der  %\\^  fann  f(^n)immen.  ^ier  jle^' 
id),  ic^  fann  ni(^t  anhni  (Lu.).  Possibility  :  3^r  fonntet  i^r  2Berf?,eu9  f^i"'  "^i^ 
in  ba§  ©arn  p  ;;iel)en  (Sch.).  Knowledge,  "to  knovvliow,"  its  oldest  mean- 
ing: ^annj^  bu  ^tdte'nifc^  ?  Compare  fbnnen,  "to  have  learnt,"  then  "to 
be  able  "  ;  fennen  (<  kanjan,  causative  of  fann — fonnen),  "to  be  acquainted 
with"  ;  n)iffen,  "  to  know." 

3.  1)  ur'f  ett  denotes  :  1.  Permission  and  authorization  ;  Du  barffi  auc^ 


100        SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB — MODAL  AUXILIARIES.        [267- 

ba  nur  fret  crfd^einen  (F.  336).  D^ne  Sagbfc^cin  barf  niemanb  auf  bie  f?agb  ge^n. 
2.  "  To  have  occasion  to,"  "  reason  for,"  "  need  *' :  tWan  barf  ben  <Sc^luffel 
nur  jnjei  2)ial  umbre^en  unb  ber  0ite3el  fpringt  juritcf,  "You  need  ..."  2)u 
barfil  ^inau^ge^en,  bie  Suft  ijl  ^ier  fe^r  f^led^t,  "  You  have  good  reason  to  go 
out  ..."  This  force  is  the  oldest,  but  rather  rare  now.  3.  "To  trust 
one's  self  to"  :  2Ber  barf  i^n  ncnnen  unb  wer  befennen:  3(^  glaub  i^n  (®ott)  (F. 
3433-5).  This  force  has  sprung  from  1  and  2  and  from  the  verb  tar  ~ 
tiirrcn  +  dare,  whose  meaning  was  embodied  in  barf — biirfcn.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  has  nearly  given  up  the  original  force  of  "  need,"  "  want," 
still  apparent  in  2,  to  its  compound  bebiirfen.  In  some  editions  of  the 
Bible  burfen,  "  to  want,"  and  lar  —  turren,  "  to  dare,"  are  still  the  rule.  In 
later  editions  t^ebiirfen  and  burfcn  have  been  substituted  for  them.  4.  The 
preterit  subjunctive  (potential,  see  284,  3)  biirftc  is  used  for  a  mild  asser- 
tion :  "Die  ^ad^mlt  burfte  SBcbcnfen  tragen,  blefe^  Urtetl  ^u  untcrfd^retkn  (Sch.), 
*'  Posterity  very  likely  will  ..."  ®a^  burfte  ju  fpat  fein,  "  I  fear  very 
much,  that  is  too  late. "  Etiquette  admits  such  redundant  phrases  as  : 
3)urftc  or  barf  ic^  mir  eriau&en,  etc. 

3.  SW  6  g  c  n  denotes  :  1.  In  its  oldest,  but  now  rare  sense  except  in  dia- 
lect, "  ability  "  and  "  power."  This  it  has  given  up  to  ^fonncn."  Compare 
its  cognates  "  may"  and  "can"  in  Eng.:  3^r  5lnMt(f  gtM  ben  Sngeln  <Starfc, 
mm  feiner  fte  crgriinben  mag  (F.  247-8),  "  although  no  one  is  able  ..." 
2.  Concession,  no  interference  on  the  part  of  the  speaker  :  2)cr  Surfc^c 
mag  nai)  |)aufe  ge'^n  (It  lies  with  him,  I  have  no  objection).  SBer  mir  ben 
S3c(i)er  fann  wieber  jeigcn,  er  mag  i'^n  be'^altcn  (Sch.).  3.  Possibility,  the  action 
does  not  concern  or  influence  the  speaker  ;  fonncn  means  a  possibility  that 
lies  in  the  ability  of  another  person  or  object.  2Ba^  fiir  (SJrunroCf^  mogen 
bad  fein  (Sch.).  Sr  mag  bad  gefagt  t)ahtr[,  cr  mag  bad  tfeun,  It  is  possible  he 
said  so,  he  may  do  it.  T>a&  Xier  mag  i;e^n  Safere  alt  fein.  With  this  force 
it  supplants  the  potential  and  concessive  subjunctives  ;  if  it  stands  itself 
in  the  subjunctive  of  the  present  or  preterit,  it  supplants  also  the  opta- 
tive subjunctive.  3d^  »iinf(i)e  ba§  bie  ganje  SBcIt  und  tjoren  mag,  ^bren  mcgc. 
9)?od^te  au^  bod^  bie  ganjc  Sett  und  pren  (Le.).  4.  From  2  springs  the  force 
of  "  inclination,"  "  liking,"  "  wishing."  2Bad  fic^  »crtragt  mit  meiner  3)flid)t» 
mag  id^  if)r  gem  gcwa^ren  (Sch.).  3c^  moc^te,  bag  er  ed  nic^t  wieber  erfii^rc.  3(^ 
effc  na^  id:}  mag  unb  leibe  toa^  id)  mup  (Prov.). 

4.  !0iuffen,  +  must,  denotes  :  1.  In  its  oldest  pen se,  "  to  have  occa- 
Bion,  room,"  "to  be  one's  lot,"  "it  is  the  case."  A  trace  of  this  is  left 
in  the  following  uses  :  ?Wcin  ^unb  war  pl)ne  ?D?auIfcrb  Hnaudgclaufen.  9?un 
mu§te  aud)  gerabe  cin  ^^oUji'ft  ba^cr  fommen  (as  luck  would  have  it,  a  police- 


267]         SYi^TAX  OF  THE  VERB — MODAL  AUXILIARIES.         101 

man  came  along).  2)er  Bufatt  mupte  t§n  grabc  "^In  "Bringen.  Sum  jroeiten  3)?al 
foil  mir  fein  ^lang  erfd)aUen,  er  miipte  benn  (unless  it  should)  befonbern  ©inn 
kgriinben  (G.,  quoted  in  Sanders'  Diet.).  3.  Necessity  of  various  kinds  : 
Stlle  5Wenf(^en  ntuffen  jlcrkn.  2)er  ©enne  mn^  fc^eiben  (Sch.).  ©in  Dber^aupt 
mu§  fein  (id.).  'Da^  mu§  ein  f^led)tcr  9)?iiIIer  fein,  bem  niemal^  ftel  ba^  2Banbern 
ein  (Song).  5r  mu§  fe^r  franf  gewefen  fein;  er  x\i  no<i)  fo  fditoac^.  The  force 
of  biirfen  :  3^  mu§  nic^t  »ergeffen,  "  I  must  not  forget." 

93raud>en  +  negative  generally  takes  the  place  of  muf^eit  +  negative  when  it  denotes 
moral  necessity.  2)a6  6rau(^ft  bu  uic^t  ju  tl^un,  loenti  bu  ni^t  wiUft.  2Bo|t  bem,  ber  mit 
ber  neucn  (3eit)  nidjt  mcljr  braufi^t  ju  leben  (Sch.). 

5.  ©ollen,  +  shall,  denotes:  1.  Duty  and  obligation.  !l)u  follfl  ®ott 
beinen  ^errn  liekn  »on  ganjcm  ^cr^en,  »on  ganger  <SeeIe  unb  son  9an:^em  ©entiite 
(B.).  2)u  Mtteft  ba  fein  follen,  You  ought  to  liave  been  there.  2.  Neces- 
sity and  destiny :  2)iefe  3ur(^t  foil  enbigen !  i|r  ^aupt  foil  fallen.  3c^  tuitt 
^rieben  ^aben  (Sch.).  3<i>  tt)ei§  nic^t  toa^  fott  c^  bebeuten  (Heine).  S©a«g  foil 
baa  ?  What  (is  that)  for?  2)arin  fottte  er  ftc^  taufc^en,  In  that  he  was  bound 
to  be  deceived,  disappointed.  3.  It  denotes  the  statement  and  claim  of 
another,  "  is  to,"  "  is  said  to  "  :  !Daa  2)?eter  foil  ac^t  J^aler  loften.  2)er  <B^a^ 
ber  9JibeIungen  foU  tm  S^t^cine  liejjen.  ©ieben  ©traflinge  foUen  entfommen  fein.  4. 
©oUte  approaches  the  force  of  the  conditional,  +  "  should."  ©ollte  er  nod) 
fontmen,  fag'  i^m,  id)  I)dtte  nidu  lanj^er  marten  fonnen.  <SoIlte  er  and)  njo^I  Irani 
fein  ?  Is  it  possible  that  he  is  sick  ? 

6.  5B  0  II  e  n,  +  will,  denotes  :  1.  The  will  and  purpose  of  the  sub- 
ject.  SBaa  tt)ottteft  bu  mit  bem  "Delete  ?  fpric^  (Sch.).  3c^  »ill  ea  trieber  sergef^ 
fen,  ttjeil  @ie  bod)  nic^t  tt)ollen,ba§  id)  ea  wiffen  foil  (G.).  SoIIe  nur  roa^  bu  fannfl 
unb  bu  tDirfl  fijnnen  toa^  bu  mill  ft.  2.  "To  be  about,"  "on  the  point  of." 
(Sin  armer  23auer  tr>ot(te  j^erben  (Nicolai).  (£a  mil  regnen.  Frequent  in  stage- 
directions,  „n)iCl  ge^en,"  ,/tt>itI  abgel)n."  9Bitt  ftc^  Rector  etuig  »on  mir  t^enben? 
(Sch.).  3.  The  claim  and  statement  of  another,  who  "says"  or  "claims 
to  "  :  Der  Beuge  tcill  ben  SIngcflAgtcu  «;cfel)en  l^aben.  2)u  witljl  i^n  ju  einem  guten 
BnjedE e  betrogen  baben.  Notice  the  ambiguity  of  such  a  sentence  as  2)er  ^err 
will  ca  getl).iu  l)aben,  "  claims  he  did  it,"  or  according  to  1,  "wills  or  wishes 
that  it  be  done." 

aSotten  is  really  the  most  difflcult  to  understand  and  use.  It  occurs  in  a  great  many 
more  idioms  with  ever  varying  shades  of  meaning.  Notice,  e.  g.,  (S§  reitt  werlauten,  "  it 
is  spread  abroad."  SOSaS  mU  haS  ^agcn  ?  =  "What  does  that  amount  to?"  "that  is 
nothing."  3c^  luttt  eg  nti^t  geie^eii  baben,  I  will  act  as  if  I  had  not  seen  it  or  "nobody 
shall  see  it,"  according  to  1.  2Scun  bcr  ©c^uler  bocb  bie^e  9JegeI  lernen  njollte,  "  if  he  only 
would  .  .  .  =  conditional.  gSeUtc  GH-'tt  bafj  .  .  .  ,  would  to  God  that  .  .  .  1)tefe  gebct 
wilt  ni(^t,  this  pen  does  not  write  (well).    Bat  it  is  impossible  to  give  all  these  meanings. 


102  SYNTAX   OF  THE  YERB— PASSIVE  VOICE.  268- 

Still  Eng.  "  will "  is  not  far  behind  the  German,    ©offen  and  woUen  should  not  be  con- 
founded with  Eng.  "  shall "  and  "  will "  of  the  future,  see  279,  3. 

7.  Caffen,  sometimes  classed  here,  is  really  a  causative  auxiliary 
and  never  used  as  such  without  an  inf.,  which  stands  as  a  further  object, 
^eine  ^lage  Id§t  fic  fd^aflen  (Sch.).  Unverjuglic^  lie^  er  brei  23attcrien  aufraerfen 
(id.).  See  202,  1,  A  second  force  is  "  to  allow,"  "  not  to  hinder.''  2)cr 
®efangenn)arter  Iie§  ben  ©efangenen  entn)ifd)en.  CaflTen  ©ic  ba^  bicibcn  {=  to 
leave  a  thing  undone.     Caffcn,  to  look,  is  a  neuter  verb. 

For  laffen  +  reflexive,  see  272  ;   in  the  imperative,  see  287.  4. 

Remark. — Verbs  of  motion  can  be  omitted,  particularly  when  an  adverb  expresses 
the  direction.  SBitlft  fcu  mit  ?  3(^  mu^  Bin.  Tas  ^^ade't  fcCte  fort  (ought  to  be  sent). 
®er  §ut  mu^  in  bie  ©dfeat^tel.  But  all  except  muffen  and  burfen  can  be  used  as  inde- 
pendent verbs,  i.  e.,  no  other  verb  need  be  supplied.  There  is  uo  call  for  a  verb  in  2Ba8 
ycU  ber  £»ut?  (Sch.),  "  "^Tiat  is  this  hat  (here)  for  ?  Notice  that  icflen,  mocjen,  and  iroffen 
are  really  the  only  ones  that  deserve  the  term  modal  auxiliaries,  since  they  assist  in 
expressing  the  mood.   See  287. 

THE   PASSIVE   VOICE. 

268.  The  active  voice  needs  no  comment.  Only  transitive 
verbs  form  a  complete  passive.  But  transitives  whose  mean- 
ing admits  only  of  an  object  of  the  thing,  also  intransitives 
and  subjective  verbs,  form  only  the  third  person  singular 
with  the  grammatical  subject  e^  or  without  it.  3^nen  mirD 
c^e'^oIfen♦  @^  mir^  gelad)t  unt*  gefungen.  ©efterrt  murte  gefpielt. 
53ei  un^  ^u  §aufe  (where  I  come  from)  n?irt  ^icl  2Bt)ift  gefptelt. 

269.  In  the  transformation  of  the  active  into  the  passive 
voice,  the  direct  object  in  the  accusative  becomes  subject- 
nominative  and  the  former  subject  is  expressed  by  i?on  -f 
dative  denoting  the  agent  and  by  feurd}  -f  accusative  denot- 
ing means  and  instrument.  53aumgartcn  er)Wu(5  ten  S?clfcn^ 
fd)ie§ett.  S3.  n?urte  »on  33.  crfcblac^en.  Tn  33rief  triirte  tiird^  cincn 
Xienftmann  beforgt  (through  a  porter).    See  prepositions,  304, 2. 

270.  When  a  verb  governs  two  accusatives  both  accusa- 
tives become  nominatives  with  the  verbs  of  naming,  calling, 
scolding.     (£r  murie  fein  greunD  genanut.    See  179,  2. 


273]  SYIs^TAX   OF   THE  VERB — PASSIVE   VOICE.  103 

1.  With  le^ren  and  fragen  the  accusative  of  the  thing  may  be  retained, 
particularly  if  that  accusative  be  a  pronoun,  e.  g.,  'Da^  *3d)Umm|le,iX)av^  un<3 
njiberfd'^rt,  ba^  wcrben  wtr  ttom  Slag  geleljrt  (G.).  For  etwasS  gelelirt  werbcn  it  is 
better  to  use  unterric^tet  werben ;  for  etwa^  gefragt  werben,  better  nac^  ixxoa^ 
gefragt  merben.  The  accusative  of  the  noun  now  sounds  pedantic,  though 
le^ren  in  M.  H.  G.  always  retained  the  accusative  in  the  passive.  See 
202,  2. 

271.  With  a  verb  governing  an  accusative,  a  genitive,  or 
a  dative,  the  accusative  becomes  nominative  in  the  passive,  but 
the  genitive  and  dative  are  retained,  ip.  ttjurbc  te^  ^o(^\jerrat^ 
angeflagt.  X^einer  trurtp  getad)t  (no  grammatical  subject)  or  e^ 
murte  tetner  getadjt.     W\x  wurte  gefolgt,  /was  followed. 

1.  The  verbs  folcjen,  :^etfen,  ge^Dr(^en,  f^mcid^eln,  TOibeiiprcc^en,  banfen  often  form  a 
personal  pgssive  in  the  classics  and  in  the  spoken  language,  but  it  is  very  questionable 
whether  this  use  should  be  imitated  ;  certainly  not  by  foreigners  who  are  accustomed 
to  this  construction  in  their  own  language  and  are  apt  to  make  mistakes  in  the  active 
and  say  ,,i6)  folge  bid)"  if  they  hear  or  say  ,,icl)  wcrbe  gefolgt,  gefd^mctc^clt."  Those  who 
defend  the  personal  passive  appeal  to  the  older  accusative  after  :^elfen  and  jc^meid)eln. 

272.  The  reflexive,  encouraged  by  French  influence,  and  man,  i^  + 
active  often  replace  the  passive.  For  ©^  njirb  gefungen,  gepoc^t  stands  5Wan 
ftngt,  ^)0(3^t.  !Da  iifnet  ftc^  ba^  %\)qx,  Then  the  gate  is  opened.  !I)er  (5d)liitTel 
lt)irb  ftc^  finben,  The  key  will  be  found.  More  frequent  than  the  reflexive 
alone  is  fid)  .  .  .  tafl'en,  e.  g.,  ©r  iwirb  ftc^  feeftlmmcn  laffen  ju  .  .  .  ,  He  will 
let  himself  be  influenced  to  .  .  .  ,  He  can  be  induced  to  .  .  .  2)a(^  laj^t 
|tc^  (eic^t  mac^en,  That  is  easily  done.  2)a^  Ia§t  fici)  pren,  That  is  plausible. 
See  290,  3,  h.  It  is  clear  from  this  that  the  German  passive  is  less  fre- 
quent than  the  English.  The  grammars  boast  more  of  the  full  and  long 
compound  tenses  than  actual  usage  justifies. 

273.  Origin  of  the  Passive  Voice. 

1.  In  O.  H.  G.  fein  {dn^  wesan),  werben  (werdan)  were  used  to  express  the  passive, 
Gothic  alone  shows  traces  of  anything  like  a  Latin  passive,  but  even  there  the  peri- 
phrastic form  had  to  be  resorted  to.  In  M.  H.  G.  the  present  is  ich  wirde  gelohet  ;  pre- 
terit, ^cA  wart  gelobet;  perfect,  ic^  bin  gelohet;  pluperfect,  ich  was  gelobet.  Warden 
was  added  to  the  perfect  from  the  13th  century  downward,  but  was  not  considered 
essential  until  the  17th  century.  The  passive  idea  lies  originally  only  in  the  past  or 
passive  participle  and  not  in  nserbcn,  which  means  only  "I  enter  into  the  state  of  being 
„gelie6t,"  ,,gei(!^tagen,"  etc.  Compare  the  future,  id)  icerbe  Ueben,  "I  enter  into  the  state 
of  loving."  The  M.  H.  G.  ich  bin  geliehet.  ich  was  (war)  Qtliebet  are  by  no  means  lost. 
Only  they  are  not  called  tenses  now.    '^^  bin  geliebt,  ba§  ^^wmev  ift  gefegt  mean  "  I  am 


104  SYNTAX   OF  THE   VERB — TENSES.  [274- 

in  the  stati  of  being  loved,"  '*  the  room  is  in  a  swept  state,"  "  has  been  cleaned,"  "Is 
clean."  The  participles  are  felt  as  adjectives,  ^t^  &in  geliett  icorben,  iaS  dimmer  ifi 
gefCi3t  irorCen  mean  '  I  have  passed  into  the  state  of  being  loved,"  "the  room  has 
passed  into  the  state  of  being  swept."  The  transition  into  this  state,  and  not  the 
present  state,  but  the  fact  or  action  are  emphasized,  hence  the  idea  of  tense  is  promi- 
nent. The  fitness  of  the  name  of  perfect  passive  for  this  form  and  not  also  for  i^  bin 
gctieSt  is  apparent  because  i6)  6tn  geliebt  worfccn  is  composed  of  i^  Bin  (ge)n)Drfccn  (the 
perfect)  +  geliebt.  In  O.  H.  G.  fetn  still  formed  the  present  as  "  to  be  "  now  in  Eng..  but 
already  in  M.  H.  G.  werden  was  the  prevalent  auxiliary  (see  above),  while  sein  was 
prevalent  in  the  perfect. 

2.  Perliaps  the  following  examples  will  illustrate  the  force  of  the  vari- 
ous forms : 

2)ic  Jioc^ter  tfl  yerlobt,  is  engaged  to  be  married.  3?om  Sife  Befreit  finb 
©trom  unb  SBac^e  (F.  903).  I^icfcr  teiTel  ijl  »on  Sergen  kgrenjt  (Hu.)  These 
three  are  not  passive  tenses.  But  compare :  3u  fccm  Sadberlic^cn  trirb  cin 
Sontra'j!  »pn  35oI(fommen^elten  unb  UnsoIIfommen^eiten  erforbcrt  (Le.)  (present 
tense).  Dicfer  ^unft  ill  »ie(  beflrittcn  roorbcn  (perf,  pass ).  The  same  differ- 
ence between  wurbe  +  participle  (=  imperfect  pass.)  and  lt>ar  -f  partici- 
ple (no  tense),  e.g.,  |)ome'r  roar  »or  Slltcr^  unftreitig  flcipiger  gclefen  al^  je^t 
(Le.).  X)ie  ^oiufer  roaren  fejllid^  9ef(t)mii(ft  (no  tense),  ©cr  JRoubcr^auptmann 
roar  fd^on  gcfangcn  gcnommcn  roorben,  al(3  feinc  Seute  ^crbeifamcn  (pluperfect 
pass.).  2)er  ©pio'n  rourbe  o^nc  rocitcrcg  an  cincn  91  fl  gefnupft  unb  erMngt  (imper- 
fect pass.). 

Examples  of  the  future  and  conditional  perfects  passive  are  very  rare 
in  the  classics. 

Syntax  of  the  Tenses. 

Simple  Tenses. 
274.     The  Present. 

1.  It  denotes  an  action  as  now  going  on.  5iBie  glangt  tie 
^onne,  wie  lai^t  tie  B^ur  (G.). 

2.  It  is  the  tense  used  in  the  statement  of  a  general  truth 
or  fact  or  custom,  in  which  the  idea  of  time  is  lost  sight  of. 
Xreimal  trei  ift  ucun.  ®ott  ifl  tie  ?icbc  (B.).  ^Sorgen  ma#  (Borgcn 
(Prov.). 

3.  The  historical  present  is  used  in  vivid  narrative  for  a 
past  tense.  Xag  gu  Sing  gegebene  ^eifpiel  fintet  aUgemeine  ?^acb:^ 
aNung;  man  »erflu(^t  ta^  2lntcn!en  be^  5Serraterg  j  atte  Slrme'en  fatten 
»on  i^m  ab  (Sch. ). 


275]  SYI^AX  OF  THE  VERB — TEN^SES.  105 

4.  For  the  English  perfect  German  (also  French)  uses  the 
present  when  the  action  or  state  continues  in  the  present 
time,  but  there  is  generally  an  adverb  denoting  duration  of 
time  qualifying  it.  Ex.:  5*lun  bin  ic^  fteben  Za^t  t)ier  (G.).  ^mi 
^age  gekn  mv  fd)Ott  ^ier  ^erum  (id.).  3cb  Hn  atl^ier  erft  furae  ^tit 
(F.  1868). 

This  use  is  by  no  means  new  in  German  or  unknown  in  English,  e.g., "  I 
forget  why."  "  The  world  by  what  I  learn  is  no  stranger  to  your  generos- 
ity "  (Goldsmith,  quoted  by  Miitzner).  It  is  closely  related  to  the  present 
sub  2  and  3,  and  generally  translated  by  "  have  been  "  +  present  participle. 

5.  The  future  present,  that  is,  the  present  with  the  force  of 
the  future,  is  much  more  frequent  in  German  than  in  Enghsh. 
Ex.:  ?lein,  nein,  tc^  ge^e  na^  itx  (Btatt  juriicf  (F.  820).  2Ber  mx% 
mer  morgen  iikr  itn^  befie^It  (Sch. ). 

It  is  a  very  old  use  of  the  present,  from  a  time  when  the  periphrastic 
future  was  not  yet  developed. 

6.  The  English  periphrastic  present  in  "  I  am  writing,"  "  I  do  write  " 
rarely  has  corresponding  German  phrases.  For  instance,  tf)un  is  dialectic 
and  archaic.  Unb  tt)U^  mcf)t  me^r  in  2Borten  framen  (F.  385).  A  large  num- 
ber of  present  participles  are  looked  upon  as  adjectives  and  stand  in  the 
predicate  after  feiitf  but  they  do  not  form  a  tense  (see  273,  1).  There  is 
a  difference  between  the  simple  present  and  (ein  +  pres.  part.  The  for- 
mer, if  it  occur  at  all.  denotes  an  act  of  the  subject,  the  latter  denotes  a 
quality  of  the  same  or  of  another  subject.  Ex.:  ?!}?an  nimmt  teil  an  et»a^, 
one  takes  part  in  something.  Scmanb  \\i  tellne^menb,  one  is  sympathetic. 
Die  ^arbe  fc^reit  is  hardly  used,  but  bie  ^arbe  \\t  einc  f(^reicnbe,  the  color  is 
a  loud  one.  Die  3lu(3 ftc^t  reijt  einen,immer  ^o^er  ju  lleigen,  the  prospect  entices 
one  to  climb  higher  and  higher,  but  bie  Sfu^jtd^t  i(l  rei^enb,  the  prospect  is 
charming.     Compare  the  Eug.  "  charming,"  "  promising,"  etc. 

275.     The  Preterit. 

1.  It  is  strictly  the  *'  historical "  tense,  used  in  narration, 
when  one  event  is  related  in  some  connection  with  another 
event,  as  following  it  or  preceding  it.  Ex. :  (iafar  fam,  fat)  unt 
fiegte.     (£r  marc  geboren,  er  leBte,  nabm  ein  SBeib  unt  ftarb  (Gellert). 

In  the  story  of  the  creation  in  Genesis  only  the  pret.  is  used  until 


106  SYNTAX   OF  THE  VERB— TEKSES.  [276- 

cliapter  2,  verse  4,  when  the  account  is  summed  up  5lIfo  i)l  ^immel  unb  (£rbc 
geworbm,  which  has  the  perfect  as  it  should  have.     See  276. 

2.  It  represents  a  past  action  as  lasting,  customary;  also  as 
contemporaneous  with  another  action,  ©eftern  tarn  ter  ^SJleticu^ 
^ier  an^  ter  @tar>t  ^inau^  ^um  Stmtmann  (connect  „Wnau^"  with 
„3um/'  not  with  „au5  ter  ®tatt")  wXS)  fant  mi(^  auf  ter  Srte  unter 
2otten^  .tintern,  n?ie  einigc  aui  mir  l)crumfrabbelten,  antere  mid)  necften 
(G.).    ^ii^n  mar  ta5  ^ort,  meil  e^  tie  2:l)at  nt^t  mar  (Sch.). 

Compound  Tenses. 

276.  The  Perfect. 

It  is  used  to  denote  a  past  event  as  a  separate  act  or  inde- 
pendent fact.  The  act  is  completed,  but  the  result  of  it  is  felt 
in  the  present  and  may  continue  in  the  present.  Ex. :  ^d)  ()abe 
genoiJen  ta^  irtifd^e  ®IM  (Sch.).  @ott  :^at  tie  2CeIt  erfdjaffett  =  God 
is  the  creator  of  the  world,  but  '^xn  Slnfang  jUuf  ®ott  ^immel  unt 
(Srte  (B.).     Tu  ^aft^^  errei^t,  Cctaijio  (Sch.).     See  279,  2. 

1.  In  the  best  writers  this  distinction  is  generally  observed,  but  not  in 
the  spoken  language,  in  which  the  perfect  is  crowding  out  the  preterit. 
As  an  illustration  of  the  exact  use  of  the  tenses,  particularly  of  the  pre- 
terit and  perfect,  may  be  recommended  the  introduction  to  Schiller's 

©ef^ic^te  be^  SlbfaKi^  ber  ^ereinigteu  9?ieberlanbe. 

277.  The  Pluperfect. 

It  denotes  a  past  action  which  was  completed  before  another 
past  action  began.  Ex.:  2:1(1^  ^atte  faum  feinen  9liicfmarf*  an^e^ 
treten,al5  ter  ^onig  fetn  Sager  gu  ©c^wett  auf^ob  unt  gegeit  granffurt 
an  tor  Dter  riidfte  (Sch.). 

278.  The  Future. 

1.  It  denotes  an  action  yet  to  take  place.  Ex. :  S3ad  tuirt 
mi  tern  ^intlein  werten  ?  (B.).    Ter  ^aifer  n?irt  moreen  abreifen. 

2.  It  denotes  probability  and  should  then  not  be  translated 
by  an  English  future  as  a  rule.  Ex. :  Ter  .^unt  tt^irt  fed^?  ^s^^hvi 
alt  fein  (3=  i(l  mo^I  or  tt)al)rfd)cinliA),  the  dog  may  be  or  is  prob- 


280j  SYNTAX  OF  THE   VERB — ^TENSES.  107 

ab!y,  six  years  old.  2Ber  flopft  ?  S^  toixt)  ein  ^Settler  fein,  it  is 
probably  a  beggar. 

3.  In  familiar  language  it  stands  for  the  imperative  implying 
confident  expectation  of  the  result.  Xn  mirft  ^ier  Heiben,  You 
shall  stay  here.    Du  ivirft  tid)  pten,  Take  good  care  not  to  do  it. 

For  the  present  with  the  force  of  the  future,  see  274,  5. 

279.  The  Future  Perfect. 

1.  It  is  the  perfect  transferred  to  the  future.  3Sergeben0 
ttjerDct  il)r  fiir  eurcn  gelo^errn  eu(^  cjeopfert  ^ahn  (Sch.).  More  fre- 
quertly  than  the  future,  the  future  perfect  denotes  probability: 
^1^0  mirt  er  lie  ^Zad^t  gugekad)t  ):)abm  ?  (Le.),  Where  can  he  have 
spent  the  night?  (£^  njirt  n?a^  anlre^  tooU  beteutct  t)aben  (Sch.), 
It  probably  meant  something  else. 

2.  As  the  present  can  have  future  force,  so  the  perfect  can 
have  future  perfect  force.  5^tc^t  e^er  ten!  i(^  tiefe^  33Iatt  ju 
braud^en,  M^  eine  Z^at  get^an  ift,  tie  uniriterfpredjli^  ten  ipo^^errat 
kgeugt  (Sch.). 

3.  In  M.  H.  G.,  the  future  perfect  is  unknown  and  its  force  is  expressed 
by  ge  prefixed  to  the  present,  and  by  the  perfect. 

T  a.  Guard  against  confounding  the  modal  auxiliaries  in  German  with 
the  Eng.  future.  Approach  to  a  future  might  be  felt  in  juollen  and  foEeitf 
e.g.,  2Ba<3  tDottcn  fie  benn  |)erau<gi)er^oren,  wenn  einer  un[d)ulbig  ijl?  (G.).  2)er 
9teid)^tag  ju  ^lugi^burg  fott  ^offentUc^  unfere  ^xo\t'Ut  jur  9leife  bringen  (G.).  See 
283,  4. 

280.  The  Conditionals. 

They  are  future  subjunctives  corresponding  to  the  preterit 
and  pluperfect  subjunctive  as  the  future  corresponds  to  the 
present.  As  in  all  subjunctives,  the  idea  of  tense  is  not  empha- 
sized. Preterit  subjunctive  and  I.  conditional,  pluperfect  sub- 
junctive and  II.  conditional  are  nearly  identical  in  force,  but 
preterit  and  pluperfect  deserve  the  preference,  particularly  in 
the  passive.  In  dependent  conditional  clauses  the  preterit  or 
pluperfect  subjunctive  only  can  stand.     In  the  main  sentence 


108  SYNTAX   OF  THE  VERB^TENSES.  [281- 

there  is  no  choice  between  them  and  the  conditionals.  Ex. : 
Oi)\u  teinen  ^at  miirtc  id)  ee  nic^t  get^an  \iah(n  or  biitte  id)  cc  nidt 
get^an.  S3a^  mxlt\i  in  an  meiner  €tclle  t^un?  Sarej't  in  ^icr 
gemefen,  mein  53rurer  ware  ni^t  geftorben  (B.). 

281.  The  conditionals  should  be  substituted  for  the  subjunctive  of 
the  preterit  and  of  the  pluperfect :  1.  When  the  force  of  the  future  is 
to  be  emphasized  as  in  :  9?a^me  ber  ^ranfe  bie  2)?cbtUu  regelma^ig  ein,  fo  wnxht 
b.i(3  ^ieber  »on  biefer  ©tunbe  an  attmoi^Iic^  verfd^wtubcn.  ®ie  glaubten,  fie  wurbeit 
jic^  leic^t  aU  ^elben  barjieflcn  (Sch.).  2.  When  the  indicative  and  subjunc- 
tive forms  coincide  as  is  the  case  with  certain  persons  in  weak  verbs : 
5ruf  eincn  (£ib  witrbe  i^  i^m  ni(^t  glauben.  »®Iaubte"  might  be  pret.  ind.  3^t 
JDiirbet  bie^  9tdtfcl  mir  crflaren,  fagtc  fie  (Sch.).  „3^r  werbet"  could  also  be 
indicative  future. 

The  Tense  of  Indirect  Speech. 

282.  The  mle  is  :  The  indirect  speech  retains  the  tense 
of  the  direct.  Ex.:  I^ic  ^dume  feien  gcbannt,  fagt  er,  unt  n?er  fte 
fd)dtige,  tern  ivacfefe  feine  ipant  ^erau5  gum  ®rabe  (Sch.).  (Egmont 
beteuerte,  ta§  ta^  ®ange  m6>t€  aU  ein  ^^afelfdjcrg  geirefcn  fei.  Ter 
^nabe  be^auptete,  er  t)dtte  e^  nid^t  get^an,  mnn  er  nidjt  »on  feinen 
©efd^rten  ta^u  »erleitet  morten  ware.  Sr  fagte  aud),  er  molle  e^  nicfct 
tinecer  t^un,  mnn  man  i^m  je^t  »erge6e.  Der  ^tn^i  fonnte  nic^t 
[(^wbren,  taf  er  ten  3lnge!Iagten  je  gefe^en  We* 

1.  But  this  rule  is  not  strictly  observed.  If  the  main  clause  contains, 
for  instance,  a  past  tense,  the  other  clause  may  take  a  preterit  for  the 
present,  a  pluperfect  for  the  perfect,  or  a  conditional  for  the  future :  T)ai 
waren  bie  ^Umtm,  fagtc  mir  ber  %ix^va,  fie  regierten  ba«  ©efc^icf  (Sch  ).  3^r 
wiirbet  bie^  9idtfet  mir  erfldren,  fagte  fic  (id.).  Wix  melbct  (pres.  for  perf.)  er,  er 
Idge  franf  (id.).  If  any  ambiguity  arises,  as  is  not  unfrequently  the  case, 
this  license  should  not  be  indulged  in.  If  the  main  verb  is  in  the  pres- 
ent, it  is  not  well  to  substitute  the  preterit  or  pluperfect  in  the  sub- 
ordinate clause,  because  this  license  is  due  to  attraction  of  tenses,  viz., 
preterit  in  one  —  preterit  or  pluperfect  in  the  other.  Compare  :  Sr 
beteuertf  er  fei  bagegcn,  he  asserts,  that  he  is  opposed.  ®r  beteuert,  er  wore 
bagegen  might  be  construed  as  meaning  er  wiirbe  bagcgen  fein,  which  means 
**  he  would  be  opposed."    ©r  beteucrt,  er  fei  bagegen  gewefen,  he  had  been 


283]  SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB  — TEI^SES.  109 

opposed  ;  er  iodn  bagegen  gercefen  might  moreover  be  understood  as  having 
the  force  of  the  II.  Conditional. 

For  the  mood  of  the  indirect  statement,  see  285.  For  further  remarks  on  the  use 
of  tenses,  see  284,  also  the  General  Syntax. 

283.  Origin  of  the  Compound  Tenses. 

1.  The  compound  tenses  in  all  the  living  languages  are  products  of  the  development 
of  so-called  ^en/)^ra.s^ic  conjugation,  which  uses  certain  independent  verbs  denoting 
existence,  possession,  transition,  or  the  beginning  of  an  action,  in  connection  with  an 
infinitive,  participle,  or  gerundive.  The  more  the  inflectional  endings  of  the  simple 
tenses  of  the  earlier  periods  weathered,  the  more  favorable  were  the  chances  for  the 
growth  of  analytical  and  circumlocutory  tenses.  Compare  the  Latin  amor,  amatus 
sum  or  fui ;  excusavi,  excusatam,  -urn  habeo  or  teneo  with  French  ^'e  svis  aime,  ~ee, 
je  fus  aime,  -ee  ;  je  Vai  excuse,  -ee,  je  Vavais  excuse,  -ee.  The  Germanic  languages 
have  only  two  simple  tenses.  Gothic  shows  still  a  mutilated  passive  But  the  future 
perfect  and  pluperfect  active  and  passive  sprang  up  within  historic  times  from  a  com- 
bination of  an  independent  verb  with  an  infinitive  or  participle,  which  were  at  first 
felt  only  as  predicate  noun  or  adjective.  The  participle  in  O.  H.  G.  could  be  inflected 
like  any  predicate  adjective. 

2.  At  different  periods  of  High  German  there  were  diffferent  verbs  which  could  be 
thus  employed.  Besides  ■  the  modein  auxiliaries  f)atcn,  fcin  and  icerben,  in  O.  H.  G. 
fi<70w,  + to  own.  In  Gothic  haban  +  inf.  was  made  to  express  the  future,  in  O.  H.  G. 
mln  (shall)  and  werdan  +  pres.  part. ;  in  M.  H.  G.  besides  these,  wellen,  muezen.  3c^ 
^abe  ten  §iit  aOgenommen  or  aufgeje^t  means  originally  I  have,  possess  the  hat  in  some 
state  or  position,  viz.,  in  my  hand  (taken  off^)  or  on  my  head  (put  on).  The  German 
order,  too,  shows  this  early  construction  much  better  than  the  English  *'  I  have  taken 
off"  my  hat."  Compare  the  Latin  Excusatum  Jiabeas  me  rogo,  "Have  me  excused, 
pray,"  ,,^itte,  :^a6e  (^atte)  mic^  (fuv)  entyc^utbtgt. "  §a6en  could  only  be  used  with  tran- 
sitive verbs,  but  losing  the  distinctive  meaning  of  possession,  it  could  combine  with 
verbs  having  an  object  in  the  G.  and  D.  and  even  with  no  object,  viz.,  with  intransi- 
tive verbs.  §a6en  required  the  past  participle  in  O.  H.  G.  in  the  A.,  but  yetn  required 
it  in  the  N.  ©ein  could  not,  from  the  nature  of  its  meaning,  form  the  perf .  or  pluperf. 
active  of  any  transitive  verb,  but  only  of  intransitives  denoting  a  continuance  of  a  state 
(Meifieit/  fein)  or  transition  into  another  state,  where  it,  however,  collided  with  rcerten, 
used  in  the  future.  But  notice  that  the  idea  of  transition  and  change  is  in  most  verbs, 
here  in  question,  due  to  the  prefix.  ®ein  f  past  participle  could  only  mean  existence 
in  a  certain  state,  at  most  the  beginning  or  ceasing  of  an  existence. 

3.  As  to  verbs  of  motion,  their  relation  to  these  verbs  is  very  intimate.  When  it  is 
not,  fiaOcu  becomes  the  rival  of  feln,  as  soon  as  the  activity  of  motion  is  to  be  brought 
out  and  not  the  result.  That  fein  could  be  used  with  a  past  participle  of  a  verb  of  mo- 
tion at  all,  was  partly  brought  about  by  its  use  with  a  present  participle  and  infinitive. 
Such  forms  as  »ermutenb,  termogenb,  nac6gc6enb  fein,  eermuten  fein  are  remnants  of  the 
use  oism  +  pres.  part,  or  inf.  in  M.  H.  G.  We  do  not  feel  the  participle  or  infinitive 
as  such  now.     They  form  no  tense. 

4.  SOSevben  +  pres.  part,  was  in  M.  H.  G.  more  common  than  jccrben  +  inf.,  but  the 


110  SYJsTAX   OF  THE  VERB — MOODS.  284- 

latter  was  the  established  future  in  the  16th  century.    From  "  I  pass  into  the  state  of 
praising  "  to  "  I  shall  praise  "  is  not  a  long  step. 

5.  The  conditionals  formed  with  rciirbe  sprang  up  in  the  14th  century  and  were  set- 
tled in  the  16th,  according  to  Grimm.  In  M.  H.  G.  before  the  13th  century  "■  solde,'''' 
"  W(^de  "  were  used  as  in  the  other  Germanic  languages,  but  these  lacked  the  umlaut, 
and  therefore  were  not  easily  distinguishable  as  subjunctives. 


THE    MOODS. 

Subjunctive. 

284.  The  indicative  is  the  mood  of  reality,  the  subjunctive 
is  the  mood  of  unreality,  contingency,  possibiHty. 

1.  The  imperative  subjunctive  helps  to  fill  out  the  impera- 
tive for  the  third  persons  sg.  and  pi.  and  the  first  person  pi. 
It  is  a  strong  optative,  see  sub  2. 

Ex.:  Slttee  fc^weigc,  jeber  netge  ernften  Xonen  nun  fein  D^r  (Song),  ©e^e  jebcr 
wic  er'^  treibe,  fe^e  jeber  wo  er  bleibe  (G.).  ©eien  <Bk  mix  anUfo  mmen.  2a\fm 
air  baa,  let  us  not  do  this.  ®e^en  roir  biefen  9)aragraipKen)  nod^  mal  burd^,  let 
us  go  over  this  paragraph  once  more.  ®e^en  ©tc.  Sreten  bie  ^erren  9cfal=* 
ligft  ein  (rare). 

SBerbc  and  jei,  feib  really  subjunctives,  are  used  as  imperatives  in  the  second  person. 
SBerbe  munter,  metn  ©ernute  (Hymn),    ©ei  rair  gcgriilt,  raetn  Serg  (Sch.). 

2.  The  optative  subjunctive  expresses  a  wish  or  request. 
The  present  subjunctive  implies  confidence  of  fulfilment. 
Only  the  third  person  is  used. 

Ex. :  T)\i)  fii^re  bm^  bag  rotlbbcwcgte  Seben  cin  gnabige^  ®ef(^icf  (Sch.).  2)ein 
5^amc  fci  scrgeJTcn  (Uh.).     ®ott  ijerme^re  bie  ®abc  (G.). 

The  preterit  subjunctive  implies  less  assurance,  and,  like 
the  pluperfect  subjunctive,  even  no  expectation  of  realization. 

Ex. :  D  »aren  tt)ir  welter  I  o  war  i^  ^u  ^auS  (G.).  D  fa^|l  tu,  seller  Tton* 
benfc^ein  .  .  .  (F.  386).  2Bare  er  nur  noc^  am  ?ekn !  (Implying  „er  i)l  ahx  tot"). 
^^remmer  3tab,  o  mV  i^  nimmcr  mit  bcm  S(^n>crte  bic^  scrtaufv^t  (Sch.).  See 
also  F.  392-7. 

3.  The  potential  subjunctive  expresses  an  opinion  as  such, 
a  possibility,  a  mild  assertion  of  an  undoubted  fact  {dipJomalic 
subj.);  it  stands  in  questions,  direct  and  indirect;  in  exclama- 


285J  SYiifTAX   OF  THE   VERB — MOODS.  Ill 

tions.  The  preterit  and  I.  conditional  are  the  potential  sub- 
junctives of  the  present ;  the  pluperfect  and  II.  conditional, 
of  the  past. 

Ex.:  3d)  relme,  bat^t^  ic^,  boc&  nod)  fo  jiemlid)  ^ufanimcn,  'coa^  pfammen  ge^ort 
(Le.;.  2)a^  ginge  no^,  "that  might  do  yet"  (id.).  S©er  witpte  ba^  nidjt? 
Everybody  knows  that,  ^attt  id)  boc^  nimmerme^r  gcbac|t,  ba§  er  fo  grop  mx^ 
ben  raiirbe  (Le.).  355le  lieige  fic|  aOe^  fc^reiben!  (G.)  (Implying  „c^  ill  unmogiid)"). 
'^a]t  l)atte  ic^  ba<3  Se|"te  ijergeffen  (id.).  SBcina^e  ware  ic^  gegen  einen  23aum  gerannt. 
Du  l)attetl  ha§>  gen)u§t?  (Implying  „i6)  glaube  e^  nic^t).  9iic^t,  ba§  ic!^  wupte,  not 
as  far  as  I  know. 

See  also  the  modal  auxiliaries,  267. 

4.  The  concessive  subjunctive  denotes  an  admission,  yield- 
ing, an^l.  supposition.  Generally  only  in  the  third  person  of 
the  present  and  perfect.  It  borders  closely  upon  the  optative 
and  conditional. 

Ex.:  e<3  fojle  n)a<3  e^  WoUe  (Le.).  d^  \n,  ''(it  is)  granted."  ©efctte,  bu 
fet|l  eitt  guter  ober  fc^Ummer,  Icg^  bic^  auf^  D\)x  (Uh.).     See  ntogcn,  267,  3. 

5.  The  unreal  subjunctive  stands  in  conditional  sentences 
both  in  the  premise  and  the  conclusion,  i.  e.  in  the  dependent 
clause  and  in  the  main  clause,  when  the  premise  is  not  true. 
The  preterit  and  pluperfect  stand  in  the  premise;  the  preterit, 
pluperfect,  and  the  two  conditionals  in  the  conclusion.  The 
preterit  has  present  and  future  force,  the  pluperfect  has  future 
force  only. 

Ex. :  (£<3  liepe  fid^  affe^  treffli^  fc^Iic^ten,  fijnnte  man  bie  (Sa^en  jweimal  »er^ 
ric^ten  (G.).  3c^  tucire  nii^t(5,  n^enn  ic^  bliebe  xoai  td^  Mn  (id.).  SBenn  mx  ®elb 
bet  un^  get)abt  I)atten,  fo  wiirben  xo'xx  ben  5lrmen  wai?  gegeben  baben. 

The  premise  omitted  or  represented  by  an  adverb,  etc  :  3c^  t^ate  ba^ 
nic^t  an  Deiner  Stelle  =  wenn  id)  an  Deiner  (Stetle  ware.  SBir  wdren  be<3  3;obe^. 
SD^ne  5llpenilp(f  iDoire  bcr  SBanberer  in  bie  Siefe  ^inabgefaUen. 

The  conclusion  omitted :  3a  n^enn  xmx  nic^t  waren,  fagte  bie  Saterne  jum 
5Konb.   2)a  gtng  fie  au^  (Folk-lore). 

285.  The  subjunctive  is  the  n>ood  of  the  indirect  state- 
ment, in  which  the  speaker  expresses  the  ideas  of  another  in 


112  SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB.  —  MOODS.        [286- 

his  own  words  without  sharing  the  responsibilit}-  for,  and  belief 
in,  the  statement.     For  examples  see  282. 

The  third  sentence  shows  that  unreal  conditional  clauses  are  not  affected 
wlien  part  of  an  indirect  statement.  The  fourth,  also  the  last  of  328,  show- 
how  other  clauses  are  affected. 

Imperative. 

286.  It  expresses  a  command  and  occurs  only  in  the  2.  p. 
sg.  and  pi.  For  the  1.  and  3.  p.  pL,  see  284,  1.  Sile  mit  SBeile, 
Make  haste  slowly.  Scbr:  tu  micb  meine  Scute  fennen  (Sch.). 
^inl^et  itm  (id.),     ^^artet  ibr,  intern  mv  »oran  laufen. 

1.  The  pronoun  is  quite  optional  ;  only  when  there  is  a  contrast,  as  in 
the  last  sentence  (ibr  —  wir),  it  should  stand.  In  the  subjunctive  it  al- 
ways stands. 

The  imperative  is  only  used  in  the  present  and  has  future  force, 
but  by  a  license  also  a  perfect  imperative  occurs  ;  33efen !  Sefen !  <Selb^^ 
gewefen !  says  the  apprentice  when  he  wants  the  brooms  to  cease  being 
watercarriers  (G.). 

287.  Other  verbal  forms  that  take  imperative  force  and  a 
very  strong  one,  are  : 

1.  The  infinitive  :  ^aul  (iDiunt)  ^altcn !  Hold  your  tongue. 
9ZiAt  anfaffen  I  Do  not  touch. 

2.  The  past  participle  :  "Tie  3;rommeI  geriibrt  (G.).  %xi\6^  auf 
^ameraien,  auf'^  fitvl,  auT^  ^fert  1  in  ta^  %tlv,  in  tie  ?^rei^eit 
gejo^en  (Sch.). 

3.  The  present  and  future  indicative  :  ®eorg,  tu  Keibjl  urn 
mic^  (G).  X;u  njirfl  ten  2lpfe(  fcbiegen  »on  tern  .^opf  te^  ^naben 
(Sch.).     See  278,  3. 

4.  The  modal  auxiliaries  denoting  a  necessity,  duty,  can 
express  imperative  force,  also  lajfen.  Xu  follft  nidbt  fte^Ien  (B.). 
^ein  "iDZenfc^  mu§  miilJen  (Le.),  no  man  ought  to  be  compelled. 

Since  the  Eng.  "let"  shows  no  inflection,  notice  the  German  forms: 
Sa^  un5  9ef)en,  to  a  person  addressed  as  bu ;  plural  Cafjl  und  ge^en.  Caffen 
©ie  un^  ge^en,  to  a  person  addressed  as  ©ic. 


290]  SYJ^TAX   OF   THE   VERB — IKPI^ITiVE.  113 

Infinitive. 

288.  It  is  a  verbal  noun  and  the  present  infinitive  has 
neither  voice,  tense,  nor  inflection.  The  compound  infinitive 
arose  hke  the  compound  tenses  (see  283) :  gelobt  njerlen,  to  be 
praised;  gelobt  worsen  fein,  to  have  been  praised;  gelobi  l)aben,  to 
have  praised. 

1.  Notice  the  marked  difference  in  meaning  between  the  present  of  some 
of  the  modal  auxiliaries  +  perfect  infinitive,  and  the  perfect  or  pluper- 
fect +  present  infinitive.  Ex.  :  X)er  ^utfd)er  will  ben  ®efangenen  gefeljen 
^aben  =  claims  to  have  seen  him,  but  ^at  it)n  fef)en  JDoHen  =  wanted  to  see 
him.  ©er  .^auftrer  mup  ijorbeigegangcu  fcin  =  must  have  passed  by,  but  ^at 
ijorkige^en  miiffen,  was  forced  to  pass  by,  etc. 

289.  We  distinguish  between  the  infinitive  without  ^u  and 
with  ju* 

The  former  is  the  older  construction.  Being  a  noun,  the  infinitive  always  stood  in 
the  D.  after  ju  in  O.  and  M.  H.  G.  But  in  early  N.  H.  G.,  when  it  was  no  longer  in- 
flected, the  prepositional  infinitive  gained  ground  and  gave  also  rise  to  the  gerundive 
(see  298).  Usage  is  in  many  cases  still  unsettled  as  to  the  use  of  ju.  Its  frequent  use 
is  the  source  of  much  bad  style  (see  Sanders'  ^^auvticljiDiertgfeiteu"  .  .  .  sub  Inf.).  The 
cases  where  the  infinitive  has  taken  the  plac"  of  the  present  participle  are  mentioned 
below  under  each  head.  In  the  gerundive  alone  the  participial  form  has  taken  the  place 
of  the  infinitive.    See  298. 

The  Infinitive  without  gu. 

290.  1.  It  is  dependent  upon  the  modal  auxiliaries.  'Eer 
33ote  Witt  e^  au5  aller  Seute  Mwxii  erfaken  ^akn.  5J?an  fell  ten  lao^ 
nictt  ^.jor  Cem  2lbent  loben  (Prov.).  Also  upon  tbun  in  quaint  and 
dialect  style,  e.  g.,  ta  t()aten  fie  fid)  trennen  (Uh.).  See  the 
speeches  of  ?0?art()e  and  ^O^Zarviiarete  in  F.,  I.  Upon  ^aten  in  the 
phrase  gut  ^aten.  ^\x  baft  gut  reten,  it  is  easy  enough  for  you  to 
talk.     Gr  t^ut  m(^t5  dU  .  .  .  ,  he  does  nothing  but  .  .   . 

2.  In  certain  phrases  dependent  upon  some  verbs  of  motion; 
also  upon  l)elfen,  kiflen  (command),  lajfen,  Iet)ren,  lernen,  moi^^zn, 
nennen.  The  verbs  of  motion  are:  fpajicren  reiten,  fa^ren,  geben; 
fdjlafen    ge^en,  fidj    f(^lafen  legen,  etc.     S)ei§'    mic^    ni^t    reCen, 


114  SYKTAX   OF  THE   YERB — IKFIKITIVE.  [291- 

^ei§'  mtc^  [(^iretgen;  bcnn  mein  ©e^eimni^  ift  mir  ^flicbt  (G.).     Se^re 
mic^  t^un  nad?  Deiuem  ^o^lgefatlen  (B.).   See  Schiller's  Tell,  1549. 

3.  Dependent  upon  certain  verbs  of  rest:  Meiben  (most  fre- 
quently), litQCn,  fte^en  (rarely);  and  upon  verbs  of  perceiving: 
pnten,  fii^len  (rarely),  ^bren,  fe^en;  also  t)aben.  8teden  bletben,  to 
stick  fast  (intr.).  (Sd^Iafen  liegen,  3Bir  fanten  ren  2ei(^nam  tm 
S>alre  Itegen.  2Cir  fa^en  t:en  ?^ui)rer  iiber  tern  3t6gruntc  fcbmeben, 
!Der  S^proler  :^at  gewb^nlit^  ^etern  am  ipute  fterfen,  ter  (Sngldnter 
55ani:er  ^^erunter^angen.  3^  Ijah""  a  bfter^  rutimen  ^bren,  ein  ^omb^ 
tia'nt  fbnnt'  einen  ^farrer  let)ren  (F.  526-7). 

a.  ©etn  is  still  so  used  in  dialect.  Gr  tfl  fif<^?n,  jagen,  he  has  gone  afishing,  ahunt< 
ing;  er  ifi  fifteen  geree^en,  he  has  been  afishing.  With  all  the  verbs  sub  3  and  several 
sub  2  the  present  participle  was  once  the  rule  in  older  German.  Compare  the  partici- 
ple in  the  predicate,  294,  2. 

b.  After  fu^Ien,  ^oreti,  lafjeti, fc^en  the  infinitive  has  either  passive  or  active  force, 
and  often  an  ambiguity  arises  which  should  be  avoided  by  a  different  construction. 
SSiv  f}ainn  e6  fagen  f)Cn-en,  We  have  heard  it  said,  2)ie  CDogge  la^t  [id;  ni(^t  necfen,  The 
bulldog  will  not  be  teased.  SSiv  t)oreii  ben  £nabcn  rufen,  calling  and  called  (generally 
the  first).  ®er  fio^nfutfc^er  Itc^  un§  nic^i  fasten,  the  hackman  did  not  let  us  go,  did  not 
allow  us  to  drive,  did  not  have  us  driven  (Der  9)ietfter  lic^  fcie  Stodjter  ni^t  malen,  did 
not  allow  her  to  paint  and  did  not  have  her  portrait  painted. 

4.  As  subject  or  predicate  with  fein  and  l)ei§en,  to  be,  to 
amount  to  :  9Zoc^  ei'nnwl  ein  Sunder  :^offen  ^ie§e  ®ott  »erfud?en 
(Sch.).     Sin  5Sergnugen  crmartcn  ift  an6:j  ein  3Sergniigen  (Le.). 

The  Infinitive  with  gu. 

291.  1.  It  expresses  the  purpose  of  an  action  and  in  gen- 
eral the  indirect  object ;  also  necessity  and  possibility  after 
neuter  verbs,  e.  g.,  fein,  Heiben,  ftet^en,  when  it  has  passive  force. 
Xie  ®acbe  ift  niAt  ju  antern.  S^  MeiH  ned)  i?ict  jn  thin.  T<ii  ftctt 
nod)  su  iiberlegen.  Da  treibt'^  i^n,  Den  fbftUd^en  ^xni  jn  erwcrben 
(Sch.). 

This  is  the  old  and  proper  use  of  the  infinitive,  originally  a  noun  in 
the  D.  governed  by  ju.  In  N.  H.  G.  urn  was  added  to  express  purpose, 
but  it  was  really  superfluous,  though  common  in  the  spoken  language. 
Um  bie  Stromung  abjuleiten  gruben  fie  ein  \xi\6^ci  S3ettc  (Platen).     2Bir  leben  nid^t 


292]  SYNTAX   OF  THE  VEKB — INFIIIITIVE.  115 

urn  ju  effert,fonbcrn  ttjir  effen  urn  in  lekn.  The  force  of  ju  was  much  weakened 
when  urn  could  thus  be  added.  Besides  urn,  anjlatt  and  c^ne  can  precede 
in  :  an\latt  tt)cg  ju  laufen,  fam  bcr  25dr  na()cr  ^eran.  D^ne  ftd)  umi^ufc^en,Iicf  ber 
2)teO  baijon.  But  «um"  should  never  be  used  except  to  express  purpose. 
It  is  used  too  frequently.     See  sub  4. 

2.  It  stands  as  direct  object  of  verbs,  often  preceded  by,  or 
in  apposition  to,  a  pronoun  or  pronominal  adverb  +  preposi- 
tion. Ex. :  gang  an  ju  ^den  uni)  ju  graben  (F.  2355).  5^iemanc 
faume  gu  gcBen,     3c^  ^^^^^  nic^t  taran,  tir  ta^  ju  getra^ren. 

In  older  periods  of  the  language  there  was  no  ju  in  this  case. 

3.  It  stands  as  subject,  in  the  spoken  language,  more  fre- 
quently than  without  ju ;  there  is  no  choice,  ©efa^rltc^  tft^^  ten 
Sen  3u  mdm  (Sch.).  Sine  fc^one  iD'^eni'djenfeeie  finten  tft  ®emtnn 
(He.). 

4.  As  adjunct  of  nouns  and  adjectives,  the  latter  often  being 

qualified  by  gu  and  genng.     „Xie  ^unft  fid)  kliebt^u  madden."     3" 

ftofj,  l^an!  einguernten,  n?o  tc^  i^n  ni(^t  fiietc  (Le.).     "Ln  n?areft  Hint) 

genug,  la^  nidjt  etn^ufe^n  ?  ♦  »  .  Screit,  tir  jur  Q5e|'ellf(^aft  l)ier  3U 

BleiBen  (F.  1431). 
» 

After  adjectives  »um  ju"  is  now  far  more  common  than  p  alone.  3d^ 
Hn  ju  alt,  ijm  nur  ju  f))telen,  ju  iung,  urn  o^ne  SBunfc^  ju  fein  (F.  1546-7).  Quite 
rare  is  aU  ju  +  infinitive. 

5.  For  the  independent  use  of  infinitive,  see  imperative,  287,  1. 
With  or  without  ju  in  elliptical  expressions  :  2Ba^  t^un,  fpric^t  3eu^  (Sch.). 
2Ba«,  am  9?anb  be^  (^xaU  m  liigen!  (F.  2961). 

Accusative  with  the  Infinitive. 

292.  In  this  construction  the  logical  subject  of  the  infini= 
tive  stands  in  the  accusative.  The  infinitive  stands  with  or 
without  ^u.  Ex.:  ^ier  rw^et  9)lartin  ^aulermann,  menn  ntan  ten 
rnkn  fagen  !ann,  t>er  fctncn  Sebtag  ni(^t^  gett^an  (Wechherlin,  quoted 
by  Blatz).     ^iigen,  tic  man  Siigen  ju  fcin  njei§  (Le.). 

1.  Accusative  with  infinitive  was  not  nre  in  O.  H.  G.  in  the  translations  from  Latin 
and  Greek.    It  is  largely  due  to  foreign  influence.    In  M.  H.  G.  it  is  very  rare.    In 


116  SYN'TAX   OF  THE   VERB — PARTICIPLES.  [293- 

modera  German  it  is  discouraged  by  the  best  authorities,  though  Lessing  uses  it  quite 
frequently. 

2.  The  corresponding  English  constructions  must  therefore  be  rendered  freely  into 
German.  I  believe  him  to  be  my  friend,  3(^  glau6e  ba^  er  mein  greunb  tfl  or  3c^  i)a.ltt  U)n 
fur  meinen  greunb.    German  loses  thus  a  compact  construction. 

The  Infinitive  as  a  Noun. 

293.  Some  infinitives  are  felt  as  nouns  only,  e.  g.,  bag  Sekn, 
tag  3lnfe^en,  tag  Seiteti.  The  infinitive  used  as  noun  generally 
has  the  article.  "Dag  9tau(ten  ift  ^ier  ^erboten.  33eim  Uberfe'^en 
muf  man  Mg  an'g  Uniiberfe'^Iic^e  ^erange^n  (G.).  Xer  Srben  Seinen 
ift  ein  ^eimlid^  Sac^en  (Prov.). 

Participles. 

294,  The  participles  axe  really  adjectives  derived  from 
verbal  stems.  The  present  participle  retains  more  of  the 
verbal  construction  and  force  than  the  pas*^,  in  which  the 
idea  of  tense  only  appears  in  intransitive  verbs. 

The  present  participle  has  active  force  in  all  verbs  and  the 
noun  is  the  subject  of  the  action.  Xer  lacfoelnte  ©cc,  tie  auf^ 
get)cnte  @onne,  tag  fc^Iaijentc  ^Better,  "  fire-damp."  Both  parti- 
ciples can  be  used  as  nouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  very* 
much  as  in  English.  They  stand  in  apposition,  in  the  predi- 
cate and  as  attributes. 

1.  Participles  in  which  the  noun  is  not  the  subject  of  the  action,  and  those 
in  which  lies  passive  rather  than  active  force,  are  still  current,  but  not  so 
frequent  as  in  early  N.  H.  G.  They  are  not  generally  countenanced,  e.  g. , 
bci  fc^Iafenbcr  9?ad)t,  "at  night  time,"  "  when  everybody  sleeps"  ;  cine  ji^cnbe 
Seknaart,  a  sedentary  habit  of  life  ;  cJTenbc  ©aaren,  eatables  (better  Sp^ 
waaren);  eine  »or^abenbc  Olcifc,  an  intended  journey.  Some  of  these  can  be 
defended:  fa^renbc  ^aU,  movables,  chattels  (intrans.  verb);  crftauncnbe 
5Ra*rid)t,  astonishing  news  (trans,  verb) ;  cine  melfenbe  tu^  (intrans.  like 
„mil*en");  bic  reitenbc  g)ojT,  postman  on  horseback.  Poetic  are  ber  frf)n)in- 
bclnbc  %tU,  the  giddy  rock.    33on  be«  |)aufe^  wcitfc^aucnbcm  ®icbcl  (Sch.). 

2.  In  the  predicate  appear  now  only  such  present  participles  as  have  be- 
come regular  adjectives  :  kbeutenbr  important ;  rei\cnb,  charming  ;  binreipenb, 
ravishing ;  leibenb,  in  pain,  ill  health  ;  bringenb,  urgent.    See  274.  6. 


296]  SYNTAX   OF  THE  VEEB — PARTICIPLES.  117 

3.  In  apposition :  to(^enb,  wie  au«  Dfen^  fRa6)tn,  glu^n  ble  Citfte  (Scli.). 
3(^  cmpfartiiie  fnieenb  bie^  ©efc^enf  (id.). 

4.  The  participial  clause  with  the  present  participle  is  only  in  very 
restricted  use  in  German  compared  with  English.  It  cannot  express  an 
action  preceding  or  following?  another  action,  a  cause,  purpose,  etc.  It 
has  usually  the  value  of  an  adjective  clause  and  can  often  be  explained 
as  in  apposition.  2)er  %xmt,  fi(^  an  mi^  ioenbenb,  fprac^:  M^n  <Bk  9)iitleib, 
ntein  ^err. 

295.  The  past  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  has  passive 
force  ;  that  of  a  verb  which  forms  its  compound  tenses  with 
fein  has  active  force:  In  lauBumfranjte  33ec^er  (Sch.);  ta^  :^erge^ 
ful)rte  3SoIf  (id.);  lit  abgefegelteii  (2d)iffe;  ter  turd?gefallene  (unsuc- 
cessful) (Eanrita't. 

1.  But  not  all  verbs  that  have  fein  in  compound  tenses  can  be  thus  used ; 
the  participle  must  denote  the  state  produced  by  the  action  of  the  verb. 
1)k  gefegelten  ®(^iffe>  ber  gelaufene  ^nt6)t  would  not  do.  2)er  entlaufene  (Sflatic 
means  "the  runaway  slave."  This  force  is  clear  from  the  origin  of  the 
compound  tense  with  fein  (see  273,  283). 

2.  Seemingly  a  large  number  of  past  participles  have  active  force,  but 
they  are  either  quite  wrong  or  they  can  be  explained  as  having  had  origi- 
nally passive  force.  Thus :  wUngektet  i§t  man  md^V  (Gerok)  ;  ^ungegeffen  lu 
S3ette  ge^n"  are  as  wrong  as  their  English  equivalents:  One  does  not  eat 
unprayed,  go  to  bed  uneaten.  „33ebient"  means  "in  service,"  "invested 
with  an  office,"  hence  a  "servant,"  S3ebienter.  w35erbient,"  one  who  has 
merits,  ineil  ev  fid)  urn  etn?a«^  or  jemanb  »erbient  gemac^t  t)at;  eingebilbet  means 
conceited,  taken  up  with  one's  self ;  ein  i^erlogener  9)ienf(|,  a  man  given  to 
lying ;  sjerfoffener  5D'?enfc^f  given  to  drinking,  and  many  other  compounds 
with  »er-  :  »ern)einte  Slugen,  eyes  red  with  weeping. 

a.  That  some  are  now  felt  as  having  active  force  cannot  be  denied,  else  the  wrong 
use  mentioned  could  not  have  sprung  up  :  gott;,  pflid^tijergeffen,  forgetful  of  one's  duty, 
of  God;  tteiit^laten,  "  one  who  slept  too  long";  wevmcffen,  "presumptuous"  ;  uevtegen, 
embarrassed  ;  besides  the  above. 

296.  The  peculiar  past  participles  of  verbs  of  motion, 
which  seemingly  have  active  force,  stand  in  a  sort  of  apposi- 
tion or  as  predicates  with  fommen,  rarely  with  ge^en.  Ex. : 
^am  ein  3)ogeI  geflogen  (Song).  Ta  fommt  be^  2Beg^  geritten  ein 
j'djmurfer  Stelfnedjt  (Uh.). 


118  SYN^TAX   OF  THE  ADVERB.  [297- 

1.  This  use  is  by  no  means  modern,  ^ommen  and  ge^n  are  felt  as 
auxiliaries.     Compare  »crIoren  ge^en. 

2.  Special  notice  deserves  the  past  participle  with  ^ci§cn,  fcin*  and 
ncnncn,  which  has  the  force  of  an  infinitive,  but  belongs  under  this  head. 
'Dai  ^cipt  \(i^ltd)t  geworfen,  That  is  a  bad  throw.  Untcr  e^rlic^en  Seuten  neimt 
man  baig  wgelcgen."    %xi\6:^  gewagt  i\1  |alb  getDonnen  (Prov.). 

297.  The  participle  appears  in  an  absolute  construction. 
The  logical  subject  is  left  indefinite  (Lessing  is  very  fond  of 
this).  The  logical  subject  stands  in  the  accusative  and  with 
a  few,  like  auvJgenommen,  eincie[(ibIo|Jen,  abgered^net,  even  in  the 
nominative.  2lfle  luaren  ^ugegen,  ter  ^Pfarrer  aucgenommen.  Unn 
tiefe^  nun  auf  Saofoon  angetuentet,  fo  ift  tie  (Ba&jt  to  (Le.). 

1.  Closely  related  to  this  construction  is  the  absolute  accusative  +  a 
past  participle  (see  209)  and  in  some  cases  there  may  be  doubt  as  to 
which  is  meant.  Unb  jte  jtngt  ^inau^  in  tic  ftnjlere  9?ad^t,  bai  Sluge  »cn  SSeincn 
gctriibct  (Sch.). 

The  past  participle  is  in  elliptical  construction  in  the  imperative,  see 

287,  2. 

The  Gerundive. 

298.  It  stands  only  attributively.  In  the  predicate  the  old 
infinitive  stands,  which  it  has  supplanted.  Xer  nec^  ju  yer- 
!aufente  (Sc^ranf,  the  wardrobe  which  is  still  to  be  sold;  but  ter 
©Aranf  ift  nods  ju  ^erfaufcn,  the  wardrobe  is  still  to  be  sold. 
See  289,  452.     It  has  alwajs  passive  force. 

Though  the  form  is  rather  that  of  the  gerund  than  of  the  gerundive,  in  construction 
it  closely  resembles  the  Latin  gerundive.    Hence  the  name  in  German. 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   ADVERB. 

299.  The  adverb  qualifies  a  verb,  an  adjective  or  another 
adverb.  Ex. :  Tu  baft  mtdj  mad^tiij  anijegogen  (F.  483).  !Ete 
un6egreif(iA  bo^en  SSerte  jtnD  ^crrlicb  wie  am  erftcn  2:ag  (F.  249-50). 
ta^  ift  fc()r  fd^ijn  gcfd>rieben. 

1.  The  adverbs  of  time  and  place  often  accompany  a  noun  with  the 
force  of  an  attribute :  35or  3enem  brobcn  jlf^t  gcbiirft,  bcr  ^elfcn  le^rt  unb  ^ilfe 
fc^icft  (F.  1009-10).  ©eorg  V.  (ber  Siinftc),  einfl  ^onig  »on  ^annoser,  flarb  im 
5lu^lanbc. 


3011  SYNTAX   OF  THE   PREPOSITION".  119 

2.  The  adverb  stands  as  a  predicate :  2)ie  fc^onen  Beiten  »on  3lraniuej 
finb  nun  ijoriikr  (Sch.)-  X)ie  Z^ux  ijl  ju  (one  can  supply  «gema(|t")»  2)er  or 
bcm  ^Wini'ller  ifl  ntd^t  too% 

a.  Do  not  confound  gut  and  reo^I.  Except  in  a  few  cases,  as  in  njo^l  t^un,  to  do 
good,  tt>D{>t  does  not  qualify  a  transitive  verb.  We  do  not  say  in  German  ibd^I  fc^veiljen, 
WD^I  antvcDvten,  njo^l  anfangen  in  the  sense  of  English  "  well."  (Sr  i)at  e§  irol)!  geid)i'te6en 
means  "  he  wrote  it,  indeed,  (I  assure  you) "  ;  or  it  is  concessive  and  can  mean  :  "  to  be 
sure  he  wrote  it,  but  then  — ."    In  the  last  sense  ico^l  has  no  stress. 

3.  With  adjectives  or  participles  used  as  nouns  that  are  felt  rather  as 
substantives  than  as  adjectives  or  as  derived  from  a  verb,  the  adverb 
changes  to  an  adjective:  ein  m^  S5ern)anbter  >  ein  nal)er  SSerwanbter;  ein 
intim  Sefannter  >  ein  inttmer  SSefannter.    But  compare  Goethe's  famous  line : 

S)aa  ®n)iG='SeiMic^e  jie'^t  un^  ^tnan. 

300.  An  adverb  maj'  strengthen  the  force  of  a  preposition 
by  standing  before  or  after  the  preposition  +  case.  This  is 
always  the  case  when  the  adverb  is  the  prefix  of  a  separable 
compound  verb:  ring^  urn  Me  ©tatt  (^^erurn),  mitten  tur(^  ten 
S3alt),  in  tag  Dorf  ^inein,  mi  tern  Garten  ^erau^.  S^  ritten  trei 
9leiter  ^um  J^ore  ^inau^  (Uh. ). 

1.  Mark  the  adverbs  which  are  only  adverbs  and  not  adjectives  : 

luo^I,  fafl,  fc^on,  fe^r,  neulic^,  freiUd),  fvu^  (rare),  [pat  (rare),  balh,  and  others. 

2.  The  uninflected  comparative  and  superlative  of  adjectives  serve 
also  as  adverbs.  Notice  the  difference  between  auf  +  A.  and  an  +  D. 
®te  fangen  auf  ba<3  bejle  (Uh.),  they  sang  as  best  they  knew  how.  This  is 
absolute  superlative.  <Bu  fangen  am  beflen,  they  sang  best  of  all,  any.  This 
is  relative  superlative. 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   PREPOSITION. 

301.  The  prepositions  express  the  relations  of  a  noun  to  a 
verb  or  to  another  noun. 

1.  Prepositions  are  originally  adverbs,  and  the  distinction  between  prepositions, 
adverbs  and  conjunctions  is  only  syntactical.  'Denn  is,  for  instance,  a  conjunction  = 
for,  and  an  adverb  —  then,  than  ;  loa^renb  is  a  conjunction  =  while,  and  a  preposition 
=  during.  Prepositions  could  not  originally  "govern"  cases.  A  certain  case  was 
called  for  independently  of  the  preposition,  then  still  an  adverb.  In  Greek  there  are 
prepositions  governing  three  cases,  which  shows  how  loose  the  connection  between 
case  and  preposition  was.    In  fact  nearly  all  adverbs,  old  and  new,  can  be  traced  back 


120  SYKTAX    OF  THE   PREPOSITION — GENITIVE.  [302- 

to  cases  of  nouns  or  pronouns.  They  are  isolated  or  "  petrified  "  cases,  and  as  such 
could  only  stand  in  the  loosest  connection  with  the  living  cases,  which  they  gradually 
began  to  "govern." 

2.  Prepositions  can  govern  different  cases  in  diff"erent  periods  of  the  language. 
The  preposition  has  been  partly  the  cause  of  the  loss  of  case-endings.  Its  function 
becomes  the  more  important  the  more  uninflectional  (analytical)  a  language  becomes. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  subtle  elements  to  master  in  the  study  of  a  living 
language.  For  another  reason  the  preposition  is  very  important,  viz  ,  the  preposition 
-f  case  has  supplanted  and  is  continuing  to  supplant  the  case  alone,  directly  dependent 
•  upon  a  verb  or  noun.  The  two  together  are  much  more  expressive  and  explicit  than 
•a  case  alone.  In  "Die  ?ie6c  be§  50ater§,  the  genitive  may  be  subjective  or  objective,  but 
there  is  no  ambiguity  about  bie  Siebc  jum  SSater,  be^  SSaterS  Ciebe  jum  ©o^ne. 

Classification  and  Treatment  of  the  Prepositions  According 
TO  THE  Cases  they  Govern. 

302.     Prepositions  governing  the  Genitive: 

Uniueit,  mitteli?,  !raft  un^  it?a^rent>;  iant,  i?crmbge,  ungeac^tet;  ober? 
^alh  unt)  unterl)alb ;  inner^alb  unf  au§erbalb ;  tie^feit^,  jenfeit^,  ^albcn, 
wegen ;  jlatt,  au(^  Idngg,  swfolge,  tro^. 

These  are  all  cases  of  substantives  or  adjectives  (participles)  and  their 
number  miglit  be  easily  increased,  e.g.,  by  bejuglid^,  with  reference  to; 
angeftc^t^,  in  the  face  of;  feiten^,  on  the  part  of  ;  inmitten,  in  the  midst  of, 
etc. 

(The  order  is  the  one  in  which  they  are  given  in  German  grammars.  The  semicolon 
shows  the  ends  of  the  lines  of  the  doggerel.) 

We  comment  in  alphabetical  order  briefly  upon  those  that  seem  to  require  comment. 
Often  a  mere  translation  will  suffice. 

1.  9(nf!att,  an  — flat t,  flatt,  +  instead  of.  !Drau«  (from  which, 
from  whose  breast)  flatt  ber  golbenen  Sicber  ein  39Iut|1ra^l  ^od^  auf  fv>rin9t(Uh.). 
3In  2:o(^ler  flatt,  in  daughter's  stead,  ©tatt  sometimes  with  the  dative.  It 
also  governs  an  infinitive  like  o^nc,  translated  by  "  without  +  participle." 
See  Infinitive,  291,  1. 

2.  Slu^crl^aU  +  outside  of;  inncr^alB  +  inside  of ;  o  b  c  r  1^  a  U, 
above ;  u  n  t  c  r  ^  a  I  b,  on  the  lower  side  of,  below.  They  are  all  more 
expressive  than  the  simple  forms.     They  rarely  govern  the  dative. 

3.  2)  i  e  6  f  e  i  t  («),  j  c  it  f  e  i  t  (3),  this  side  of,  on  the  other  side,  beyond. 
Rarely  with  the  dative. 

4.  ^  a  I  b  c  n,  ^  a  I  b  c  r,  f)alh,  on  account  of,  +  in  behalf  of.    Follows 


302]  SYNTAX  OF  THE  PREPOSITION — GENITIVE.  121 

its  case.    Frequent  in  composition :  bt^alh,  therefore  ;  mcinct'^alkn,  on  my 
behalf ;  2llter^  ^alkr,  on  account  of  age.     Comp.  TOegcn  and  witlen. 

5.  ^  r  a  f  t,  according  to,  by  virtue  of.  ^raft  be^  ®efe^e^  ;  fraft  bed 
SImted.  Formerly  only  in  ^raft,  e.g.,  ba§  ftetd  ber  Uebjle  (©ol^n)  ...  in  ^raft 
allein  bed  Olingd,  bad  ^aupt,  ber  %m\t  bed  ^aufed  werbe  (Le.).    Comp.  taut. 

0.  Saut,  from,  «nac^  Saut,"  lautd  (Luther),   means  "according  to,' 
"by."    Saut  SBefe^ld,  by  command  ;   laut  bed  Xeftamented/ according  to  the 
last  will  and  testament. 

Plural  nouns  without  articles  in  which  the  genitive  could  not  be  dis- 
tinguished stand  in  the  dative  :  laut  33riefen,  according  to  letters.  Saut 
means  literally  according  to  a  verbal  or  written  statement ;  fraft  gives  a 
moral  reason. 

7.  SD^ittetd,  mittelf^  (most  common),  yermitteljl,  by  means  of, 
with.  ^ittet|l  eined  ^ammerd,  etned  SSo^rerd.  It  is  more  expressive  than 
nut  or  bur(^.     Rarely  with  the  dative. 

8.  D  h,  rare  and  archaic.  With  genitive  if  causal  (on  account  of) ; 
with  dative  if  local  (above),  and  temporal  (during).  1)a  TOeinten  jufammen 
bie  ®renabier^  vocljl  cb  ber  flaglic^cn  ^unbe  (Heine).  Db  bem  Salb;  nib  bem 
aCalb  (Sch.,  Tell);  ob  bem  3lltarc  (id.). 

9.  31  r  0  ^^  with  genitive  and  dative,  in  defiance  of,  in  spite  of  ;  in  the 
sense  of  "in  rivalry  with,"  "as  well  as,"  always  with  the  dative.  %xo^ 
bed  Iieftigen  Stegend  fu^ren  ir»ir  at.  ®le  ©angerin  fingt  tro^  einer  ^iat^tigatt,  as 
well  as  a  nightingale.  Comp.  the  forms  ju  or  jum  Jro^e  preceded  by  a 
dative  :  W\x  jium  Zxo^t  fu|r  cr  fort  ju  lefen,  in  defiance  of  me  or  to  defy  me 
he  continued  reading. 

10.  U n a n g e f  e I) e n,  setting  aside,  untcfc^abet,  without  detriment  to, 
ungea^tet,  notwithstanding  (very  frequent).  The  last  two  also  with  a 
preceding  dative  ;  bemungeac^tet  is  felt  as  an  adverb.  These  are  very 
modern  prepositions.  Unwett,  unfern*  not  far  from,  occur  also  with 
dative. 

11.  35  er  m  oge,  in  virtue  of,  through,  in  consequence  of,  by  dint  of. 
Denotes  a  reason  springing  from  a  quality  of  the  subject:  ijerntoge  feiner 
9teblic^feit,  through  his  honesty.  We  could  not  say  fraft  feiner  9?. ;  sermoge 
(and  not  fraft)  grower  Slnflrengungcn,  by  dint  of  great  efforts.    (Perhaps  from 

wnac^  35ermogen.") 

12.  SB  a  ^  r  e  n  b,  during.  Sometimes  with  the  dative  :  tDa^renbbem, 
meanwhile. 

13.  SB  e  g  c  n,  on  accoimt  of,  both  preceding  and  following  the  noun ; 


122  SYNTAX   OF  THE   PREPOSITION — DATIVE.  [303- 

also  with  the  dative.     Segen  denotes  also  a  motive  and  an  impediment. 

Seiner  ®rij$e  weijen  fonnte  M€  ©d)iif  nic^t  bur(|  ben  ^amL  2)er  3)?uUer  xoax 
wegen  [einer  *Starfe  berii^mt.  SBegen  from  »on  —  wegen,  still  common  in  „i)on 
9lec^t^  megen,"  strictly,  in  justice. 

14  SB  1 11  e  n,  generally  u  ni  —  tt)  1 1  ( c  n,  denotes  the  purpose,  the  ad- 
vantage or  interest  of  a  person.  Urn  meiner  9Ju^e  njtilen  erfloircn  ®ie  fid) 
beutlid)er  (Sch.).  Urn  be^  So^nesS  n?i(len,  urn  meinetwillen,  for  the  sake  of  or  in 
the  interest  of  the  son,  for  my  sake.  SBcgen,  fealben,  and  wiQen  all  appear 
with  pronouns,  and  are  used  promiscuously. 

15.  3ufo  1  ge,  as  frequently  with  the  dative,  denotes  the  result,  "  in 
consequence  of."  3ufolge  bei^  Sluftragc^,  in  consequence  of  the  commission; 
ben  SJerabrebungen  jufolge,  in  accordance  with  the  verbal  agreements. 

Prepositions  governing  the  Dative. 

303.  ©d^reib:  mit,  nacb,  ndc^ft,  nebft,  famt;  feit,  »on,  gu,  jumi'ter; 
entcjegen,  au§er,  au5  —  ftet^  mit  tern  Tati»  nieter. 

1.  91  b,  stili  used  in  the  Alemanic  dialect  (Baden,  Switzerland)  as  a 
preposition.  In  business  style  it  denotes  the  place  at  which  merchan- 
dise is  delivered  or  the  time  after  which  anything  is  to  be  had  :  ab  ^am^ 
]6urg,  ah  9?euia^r,  ab  =  "all  aboard." 

2.  91  u  ^  denotes  the  starting  point  of  a  motion,  the  opposite  of  in  + 
accusative,  =  "out  of,"  "from":  9tu<3  ben  9(ugen,  au^  bem  ©inn,  "out  of 
sight,  out  of  mind " :  au^  bem  ^enfier  fet)en,  to  look  out  of  the  window. 
Origin  and  descent:  au^  alten  3etten,  from  olden  times;  au«3  ^anncvcr, 
from  Hanover.  Material :  aus?  2c^m,  of  clay  ;  au(3  ^U^\,  of  meal.  Motive  : 
au(3  9)?itleib,  ^a^,  from  pity,  hatred.  Origin  also  in  a\i$  ©rfa^rung,  from 
experience ;  au^  35erfc^en,  by  mistake.  Notice  the  idiom  :  aui  ^iiln  gebiirtig, 
a  native  of  Cologne,  born  in  C. 

3.  9r  u  §  e  r,  outside  of,  beside,  the  opposite  of  in  +  dative.  Denotes 
also  exception  and  "  in  addition  to."  More  frequent  in  the  figurative  than 
in  the  local  sense,  because  auger^alb  is  more  precise.  9(u§er  bent  ^aufe,  not 
at  home  ;  ouper  |>aufe  fpeifen,  to  dine  out ;  ouper  ftrf)  fein,  to  be  beside  one's 
self.  9?ur  bet  abetter  war  auper  mtr  ba.  Mark  once  the  genitive  auger  Sanbcd 
gel)en,  to  go  to  foreign  parts;  also  the  accusative  in  aufeer  alien  SftJcifel  jetjen, 
put  beyond  all  doubt.     (Se^en  being  a  verb  of  motion.) 

4.  Set.  Original  meaning  is  nearness,  hence  by.  near,  with  :  bei  bcr 
©(i^eune,  near  (by)  the  barn  ;  bei  bet  3:ante,  near  the  aunt  or  at  the  house  of 


303]  SYNTAX   OF  THE   PEEPOSTTION — DATIVE.  123 

the  aunt ;  bcim  2m^,  by  Jove  ;  btc  ©c^tac^t  kt  SSorf^,  the  battle  of  W.  ;  bei 
%i\<^  fein,  to  be  at  dinner  ;  kl  Xag  unb  bei  9?acbt,  by  day  and  by  nig'ht ;  bet 
(einent)  9iamen  nenncn,  to  call  by  name  (but  ^^riebric^  m  i  t  3'iamen,  Frederic 
by  name) ;  bei  (rare)  neunjig  ©efangenen,  about  ninety  prisoners ;  Id  ©trafe 
»on  je^n  Wait,  ten  marks  fine,  ^d)  1^a1>t  fetn  ®elb  bei  mir,  I  have  no  money 
about  me.  The  accusative  stands  in  bei  ©elte  legen,  bringen,  f^etten,  to  lay, 
put  aside.  In  M.  H.  G.  after  verbs  of  motion  regularly  the  accusative, 
but  in  the  spoken  language  now  discarded,  though  still  found  in  the 
classics. 

5.  35  i  n  n  e  n>  sometimes  with  genitive,  expresses  now  time  only, 
"within"  :  blnnen  brei  ^ci^ren,  within  three  years.     <  be  —  innen. 

6.  S  n  t  g  e'  g  e  n  denotes  approach,  both  friendly  and  hostile,  towards 
and  against ;  stands  generally  after  its  case.  Sir  gingen  bem  i^reunbe  ent=' 
gegen;  fu^ren  bem  SBinbe  entgegen.  With  verbs  of  motion  it  frequently  forms 
separable  compounds  and  is  really  more  adverb  than  preposition. 

7.  ®  e  g  e  n  ii'  b  e  r,  opposite,  facing  ;  generally  after  its  case ;  rarely 
gegen  —  uber.    !Dem  (S(|loffe  gegeniiber. 

8.  ®  e  m  a  ^f  preceding  and  following  its  case,  according  to,  in  accord- 
ance with  ;  really  an  adjective.  2)em  2^erf^)re(^en  gema§,  according  to  the 
promise ;  gemci^  bem  ©efe^e,  according  to  the  law.  It  is  more  definite 
than  nac^. 

9.  9)?  it  means  "in  company  with,"  "with";  denotes  presence,  ac- 
companying circumstances  and  instrument.  3Irm  in  5trm  mit  Vxx,  fo  forbore 
i^  mein  3a^rl)unbert  in  bie  ©c^ranfen  (Sch.).  ^it  ^reuben,  gladly;  eile  mit 
2BeiIe,  hasten  slowly ;  mit  ^^ug  unb  Stec^t,  justly  (emphatic) ;  mit  ber  Beit 
pfliiiJt  man  Oiofen,  in  due  time  .  .  .  ;  mit  %\i\^,  intentionally  ;  mit  bem  9)feil, 
bem  SBogen  (Sch.).    (See  mittel^,  302,  7.) 

10.  9?  a  (^  denotes  originally  a  "  nearness  to,"  being  an  adjective  (na^e); 
then  "a  coming  near  to,"  and  generally  corresponds  to  Eng.  "after"  in 
point  of  time,  order.  With  verbs  of  motion  (literal  and  figurative)  "  to  " 
and  "after."  '^0.6)  iixod^  jlreben^  ftc^  fe^nen,  to  strive  after,  long  for  ;  nac^  Wxi^ 
ternac^t  ;  nac^  bir  fommc  id),  it  is  my  turn  after  you ;  nac^  S3erlin  reifcn.  "  In 
accordance  with,"  not  so  expressive  as  «gema§/'  in  this  sense  often  after 
its  case.  9hc^  ben  ®efe|en  "oerbient  er  ben  Sob;  bem  SBorttaute  nad),  literally. 
Aim:  nac^  ettna<3  fc^lagen,  fc^ie§en,  to  strike  at,  shoot  at.  9?a£^  txxoa^  fc^metfen, 
ried)en,  etc.,  something  has  the  smell,  taste  of;  m6)  iixaai  urteilen,  to  judge 
by ;  nac^  HKoa^  or  iemanb  fd)icfen,  to  send  for.    (See  ju  and  gemap.) 


124  SYNTAX   05   THE   PREPOSITION— DATIVE.  [303- 

11.  9tad)ft  is  the  superlative  of  nal^e  (nach),  and  denotes  very  close 
nearness  to  in  place,  order,  =  +  "  next  to."  3unac^ft  has  no  different  force. 
Unb  ndc^fl  bcm  Seben  \va^  erflcljft  bu  bit?  (G.). 

13.  9"?  c  b  fl  denotes  very  loose  connection  and  connects  also  things 
and  persons  not  necessarily  belonging  together;  famt,  on  the  other  hand, 
only  what  naturally  belongs  together.  Sluf  eincr  ©tange  trdgt  jte  einen  ^ut 
nth]t  einer  gal^ne  (Sch.)  (a  hat  and  a  banner).     <  neben|l  <  L.  G.  nevens. 

13.  ®  a  m  t,  mit  famt,  ju  famt,  "  together  with."  aJiid^  famt  meinem  ganjen 
^eere  Bring'  ic^  bem  |)eriog  (Sch.).  See  nebjl.  It  implies  a  close  union,  which 
does  not  lie  even  in  mit. 

14.  (Set  t,  older  ftnt,  =  +  since,  denotes  the  beginning  of  an  action  and 
its  duration  to  the  present  moment,  ©eit  btefem  Sage  fcbwetgt  mtr  jeber 
SWunb  (Sch.).  (£r  ijl  \)tvnn  fett  me^reren  ©tunben  (id.),  it  is  several  hours  since 
he  came  in  (into  the  city),  ©ett  cinigcn  Sa^ren  h^^W  er  feine  3infcn,  For  sev- 
eral years  he  has  paid  no  interest. 

15.  35  0  n,  **  from,"  denotes  the  starting  point  of  a  motion  or  action  in 
time  and  place.     Its  case  is  often  followed  by  another  preposition  or  by 

^er.  SSon  ber  |)anb  in  ben  3)?unb;  t>on  SBorten  fam'^  ju  Sc^Idgen,  from  words 
they  came  to  blows,  35on  Dilern  M^  9>fingrten  ifi  funfjig  Sage.  Origin : 
©aU^er  s>ott  ber  3Sogel»eibe.  ^iirfl  »on  S3i(Jmar(f.  ^err  »on  Sc^ulemburg. 
Hence  *on  in  the  names  of  persons  denotes  nobility  :  ^err  son  <oo  unb  So. 
SUon  Sugenb  auf;  »on  ®runb  aui^,  thoroughly  ;  von  Djlen  ^er.  Separation  : 
fret,  rein  »on  etwa^.  Supplants  the  genitive  :  ein  SKann  »on  (S^re,  son  grogen 
^enntmJTen  ;  ber  ^bhd  son  9>ari^.  Denotes  the  personal  agent :  2BaIIen|lein 
wurbe  son  9)iccoIomini  :^intergangen  unb  son  sielen  ®eneralen  im  ©tid^e  (in  the 
lurch)  gelaffen.  Notice :  ©c^urfe  son  einem  SBirt  (Le.).  Cause :  na§  som 
(with)  Xan,  som  Oiegen. 

16.  3  u  denotes  first  of  all  the  direction  toward  a  person  (but  nad^ 
toward  a  thing)  +  "to":  ju  jemanb  ge^en,  fommen,  fpred^en,  etc.  <3ie  fang  ju 
i^m,  jie  fprac^  ju  i^m  (G.).  3u  ft^  fommen,  "come  to"  ;  etn)a<3  j;u  jic^  flerfen,  to 
put  something  in  one's  pocket.  (This  is  its  only  use  in  0.  H.  G.  In 
M,  H.  G.  its  use  spread.)  In  dialect  and  in  poetry  it  stands  before  names 
of  cities  and  towns  (=  at).  3u  ©tragburg  auf  ber  ©dbanj  (Folk-song).  3t)x 
feib  mein  ®a|l  ju  ©cbwt^j  (Sch.). 

In  certain  very  numerous  set  phrases  and  proverbs  ju  stands  before 
names  of  things.  Direction:  son  Drt  ju  Drt,  from  place  to  place  ;  ju 
a5ett(e),  jur  ^irdje,  jur  ©c^ule,  ju  ©runbc,  ju  Slate  ge^en  =  '*  take  council " ; 


304]         SYin^AX   OF  THE   PREPOSITION" — ACCUSATIVE.  125 

many  loose  compounds  with  fa^ren;  ju  %aU,  ju  Statten,  ju  <B^ahtn,  ju  (£nbe, 
lu  ®|)ren  fommert;  ju  (Si^anben,  ju  ^i^tt,  jum  ©c^elme  werben. 

Place  where  ? :  „ju  beibett  ©eiten  be^  9i^ein^"  (Song) ;  ju  ^aufc,  jur  ^anb 
fcin;  p  Sitpfn  liegen.  Manner  of  motion:  ju  Sanb,  ju  SBaffer,  ju  9Jferb  (^u 
9lo§),  ju  SBagen,  ju  i^up  =  Eng.  "by"  and  "on,"  Transition  or  change  : 
jum  ^omg  mad)en,  wci^kn,  ernennen  ;  jum  9Zarreit,  jum  beften  liakn,  to  make  a 
fool  of.  Degree  or  size,  numbers  :  pm  Xeil,  in  part ;  ju  ^unberten;  by  the 
hundred ;  ^u  breieit  toann  tt)ir  im  3inimer,  there  were  three  of  us  in  the 
room  ;  lum  Xobc  betritbt  (G.),  sad  unto  death.  Combination  of  things  : 
9Je^men  <©ie  nie  9)fefer,  ©atj  obcr  ©enf  ju  (with)  bem  ©i?  Dft  ^att'  er  faum 
SBaffer  p  ©d^warjbrot  unb  2Burf!  (Bii.).  Notice  the  use  of  ^u  before  nouns 
followed  by  Ijmin,  ^erau^,  etc.:  jum  X^ore  ^inau^;  pm  Rentier  ^erau<5.  Time 
(rare) :  Unb  fommt  er  nic^t  ju  Djlern,  fo  fommt  er  p  Slrtnita't  (Folk-song).  After 
the  noun  =  "in  the  direction  of,"  "  toward  "  :  bem  2)orfe  ju,  toward  the 
village  ;  nac^  bem  Dorfc/  to  the  village. 

Prepositions  governing  the  Accusative: 

304.    33i^,  turd),  fiir,  ge^en,  o^ne,  fonter,  urn,  witer* 

1.  S9  t  §,  till,  until,  denotes  the  limit  in  time  and  space.  When  denot- 
ing space  it  is  followed  by  other  prepositions,  except  before  names  of 
places.  The  nouns  of  time  rarely  have  an  article  or  pronoun,  fdi^  ^a^t'- 
m^i  ;  U^  an^  Snbe  aUer  £)inge  ;  M(S  "^ier^er  unb  nic^t  tveiter  ;  Vi^  an  ben  ^eOen 
2;ag ;  neunjtg  Vi^  ^unbert  3)larf;  in^  SSraunfc^roeig.  (i8i(3  <bi  +  a2,+  Eng. 
by  +  at.) 

3.  2)ur^,  4-  "  through,"  denotes  a  passing  through  :  burc^  ben  2BaIb» 
bur(^^  9?abelb^r.  Extent  of  time  (the  case  often  followed  by  ^tnburd)): 
burc^  Sa^r^e^nte  ^inbur^;  bte  ganje  Qdt  (^m)burc|.  Cause  and  occasion,  very 
much  like  aUfS  :  burc^  S'Zac^Idffigfeit,  burc^  eigene  (Sc^ulb.  Means:  burc^  einen 
9)feil  ijerwunben,  bur(^  einen  2)ienjlmann  kforgen,  attend  to  through  a  porter. 
(■Durc^  more  definite  than  mit.  See  this  and  mittel^.  It  denotes  now  no 
longer  the  personal  agent.) 

3.  %ux,  +  for,  denotes  advantage,  interest,  destination  :  SSer  ntc^t  fur 
mic^  x%  ijl  wiber  mi(^  (B.).  ©r  fammelt  fur  bie  3lrmen.  "Die  ©c^eere  ijl  fein  ©i^iel^ 
jeug  fiir  ^inber.  I^ie  SBa^r^eit  ijl  loor^anben  fur  ben  SBetfen,  bte  ©c^on^eit  fur  ein 
fu^Ienb  ^erj  (Sch.).  Substitution  and  price  :  Da  tritt  fein  anberer  fiir  i^n  ctn 
(Sch.).  Winn  Seben  ijl  fiir  ®oIb  ni(^t  feil  (Bil.).  Limitation  :  Sd)  fur  meine 
9)erfon.  ®enug  fiir  biefe^  ^al.  3^x  ^eigtet  einen  fcifen  Wlut  ...  fiir  eure  3at)rc 
(Sch.).  (StU(f  fiir  ©tiicf,  point  by  point.  In  its  old  sense  (local)  only  in 
certain  phrases  :  ©cf)ritt  fur  (by)  <Sd)ritt,  Sag  fur  (by)  2;ag,  <5a^  fiir  (after) 
©a^«    (See  »or.) 


126  SYNTAX   OF  THE   PREPOSITION^ — ACCUSATIVE.         [304- 

4.  ®  e  9  c  n  denotes  "  direction  toward,"  but  with  no  idea  of  approach 
that  lies  in  ju  and  nac^.  It  implies  either  friendly  or  hostile  feeling  if 
persons  are  concerned  ="  towards/'  "against."  ©egen  tie  2Ban£»  le^nen; 
Qegen  ben  Strom  [c^wimmen.  2Benn  ic^  mic^  (^egen  |le  ijerpflid^ten  [oE,  fo  muffen  jte'g 
and)  gegen  mic^  (Sch.).  ®ibt  c^  cin  SJiittel  gegen  bte  <Scbn)inbfuc^t  ?  ©egen  X)umm'' 
^eit  fampfen  ©otter  felbfl  sergebeniJ.  Exchange,  comparison  :  3d^  wette  ^unbert 
gegen  ein^.  9ioIanb  tt»ar  etn  ^mx^  gegen  ben  9iiefen.  Indefinite  time  and  num- 
ber: **  towards."  !Dcr  ^ranfc  fd^Iief  er)l  gegen  SJJorgen  etn.  2)er  ^^clb^err  ^attc 
gegen  breil^unbert  taufenb  ©otbaten.  ©egen  bret  U^r.  ©egen  once  governed  the 
dative  almost  exclusively  and  traces  of  it  are  still  found  in  Goethe. 

®  e  n  is  still  preserved  in  ^gen  ^immel."  ®en  <  gen  <  gein  <  gegen, 
+  again.     See  entgegen,  which  implies  a  mutual  advance. 

5.  D  ^  n  e,  "  without,"  the  opposite  of  „mit,"  wbei."  SWit  ol»jer  ot»ne  ^laufel, 
gilt  mir  gleid)  (Sch.),  "  With  or  without  reserve,  it  is  all  the  same  to  me." 
(Sin  9titter  o^ne  t^ur^t  unb  ZaM.  In  ^ol^nebem"  is  a  remnant  of  the  D.  in 
M.  H.  G. ;  jweifel^o'^ne  of  the  G.  occurring  after  the  M.  H.  G.  adverb  dne, 
from.  Stroa^  tft  nid)t  o^ne,  there  is  something  in  it  (Coll.).  D^ne  Ji  Com- 
position, see  489,  3  ;  +  infinitive,  see  291,  1. 

6.  ©onber,  "without,"  is  now  archaic  except  in  set  pnrases  like 
wfonbcr  ©leic^em"  wfonber  Bweifel,"  "  without  compare,"  "  no  doubt,"  +  Eug. 
asunder.     Once  governed  the  accusative  and  genitive. 

7.  Urn,  "around,"  "  about."  Unb  bte  (Sonne,  fte  ma*te  ben  ttjeiten  9litt  urn 
bie  2BeIt  (Arndt).  Unb  urn  t^n  bie  ®ro§en  ber  .^rone  (Sch.).  ^er  or  fterum  often 
follows  the  case :  3n  einem  ^alHreii^  ftanbcn  urn  i^n  |er  fcd^^  ober  jteben  grcpc 
^ontg^Mtber  (Sch.).  It  denotes  inexact  time  or  number:  Um  5D?ttternacbt 
begraH  ben  Seib  (Bii.).  11  m  brei  ^unbert  ^orcr,  an  audience  of  about  three 
hundred.  (®egen  is  rather  "  nearly,"  urn  means  more  or  less.)  But  wum 
brei^iertel  funf"  means  "at  a  quarter  to  five."  "At  about"  would  be 
„ungefa^r  urn"  or  „\xm.  ungefa^r,"  e.  g.,  ungefafer  urn  6  U^r.  It  denotes  further 
exchange,  price,  difference  in  size  and  measure :  5lug^  urn  Sluge,  Bt^^n  urn 
3a^n  (B.).  mti  \]i  euc^  feil  urn  ®elb  (Sch.).  Urn  imi  3off  m  flein.  (£r  ^t 
fi(i^  um  jwci  5>fennige  serred^net.  Loss  and  deprivation  :  um''^  Seben  bringen,  to 
kill  ;  um^iS  ®elb  fommen,  to  lose  one's  money.  2)a  war'iS  um  iftn  gefc^e^n  (G.), 
He  was  done  for.  2Ber  brac^te  mic^  brum?  (um  beine  $?iebe)  (F.  4496),  Who 
robbed  me  of  it?  It  denotes  the  object  striven  for:  um  ctwad  wcrben, 
fptelen,  fragenr  bitten,  fhreiten,  bcnciben,  etc.  The  object  of  care,  mourning, 
weeping  :  ©ein^  um  ben  33ruber,  bod)  nidn  um  ben  ©eltebten  weine  (Sch.).  ©c^abe 
todx'i  um  eurc  |>aare  (id.).     9?ic^t  um  bicfe  t^ut^^  mir  leib  (id.). 


306]         THE   PREPOSITION — DATIVE  AI^^D   ACCUSATIVE.          127 

8.  SB  i  b  e  r,  "  against,"  always  in  the  hostile  sense.  Denotes  resistance 
and  contrast :  2Bas3  ^ilft  m\^  2Be:^r  unb  Safe  tr>tber  ben?  (Sch.).  S^  ge^t  i^m 
tt>iber  bie  ^atnx,  It  goes  against  his  grain.    +  Eng.  "  with  "  in  withstand. 


Prepositions  governing  the  Dative  and  Accusative. 

305.  %n,  auf,  Winter,  in,  neben,  u6cr,  unter,  \?or,  jmifc^en. 

1.  In  answer  to  the  question  whither  ?  they  require  the 
accusative.  In  answer  to  the  question  where?  the  dative, 
^[(an^e  tie  33dume  cor  lai  ipau^.    Xie  33aume  fte()en  ^or  tern  ipaufe. 

2.  In  answer  to  the  question  how  long  and  until  when  ? 
they  require  the  accusative.  In  answer  to  the  question  when  ? 
the  dative :  ^m  ^ai^vt  1872  murte  (Stra^burg  xouztY  aU  ceutfd^e 
Uni^erfitdt  erojtnet.     Sir  reifen  auf  ijierje^n  Za^t  in^  ^ac. 

3.  When  an,  auf,  in,  xiber,  unter,  i?or  denote  manner  and  cause, 
then  auf  and  iiber  always  require  the  accusative,  but  an,  in,  unter, 
aox  generally  the  dative,  in  answer  to  the  questions  how  and 
why?  S}ir  freuen  un^  iiber  (=  over)  and  auf  (=  looking  for- 
ward to)  feine  5tnfunft.  2Iuf  tiefe  2Ceife,  but  in  Diefer  SCeife. 
I^er  33ettler  meinte  i)or  ^reuten  iiber  Me  ^errlic^e  ®abe. 

The  above  general  rules,  as  given  in  Kraase's  grammar,  will  be  found  of  much 
practical  value. 

306.  1.  5In  +  Dative. 

After  nouns  and  adjectives  of  plenty  and  want :  SD^angel  art  ®elb,  ret^  rttt 
©litem.  After  adjectives  when  the  place  is  mentioned  where  the  quality 
appears  :  an  beiben  ^^itpen  labm,  an  einem  9(uge  blinb.  After  verbs  of  rest, 
increase  or  decrease,  and  after  those  denoting  an  immediate  contact 
or  a  perception  :  5ln  ber  Ciielle  fa§  ber  ^nabe  (Sch.).  ©^  fe^U  an  33ud)crn. 
2)er  5lu(3TOanberer  Iltt  am  SBecbfelfteber.  T)er  3i^euner  fit^rt  ben  93aren  an  einer 
^'ctte.  1)m  2)ogel  erfennt  man  an  ben  ^ebern  (Prov,).  It  denotes  an  office 
and  time  of  day  :  am  2;^eater,  an  bei*  Umt»er|itat,  am  5lmte  angejlellt  fein,  to 
hold  an  office  at  ...  ;  am  2Jiorgen,  5Ibenb;  e^  ijl  an  ber  Beit  .  ♦  . ,  it  is 
time  .... 


128       THE  PR EPOSlTIOiT— DATIVE  AND  ACCUSATIVE.        fSOB- 

2.  21  n  +  Accusative. 

After  benfcn,  erinncrn,  matinen  and  similar  ones,  and  verbs  of  motion, 
©cnfet  an  ben  9tu^m,  ni(^t  an  Die  ®efa^r.  ©e^en  8ie  iii)  boc^  an^  gentler  (near 
the  window).  Inexact  number :  an  bic  brci  mal  ^unbert  taufenb  Wlann  (as 
many  as).  From  its  English  cognate  "  on "  an  differs  very  much  in 
meaning.    "  On  "  generally  is  auf.     See  also  300,  2. 

3.  2luf  +  "upon."  For  auf  +  Dative,  see  305,  1,  2,  3. 
It  denotes  rest  or  motion  upon  the  sui'face. 

2luf  +  Accusative. 

Stands  after  verbs  of  waiting,  hoping,  trusting,  etc.,  e.g.,  auf  etroad 
warten,  ^cffen,  fid)  teftnnen  (recall),  gefa^t  fein,  fid)  freuen  (see  305,  3),  »erjid)ten, 
(e^)  auf  et»a^  wagen,  ^oren.  Here  it  stands  generally  for  the  old  gen.  with- 
out preposition.  3(^  fann  mic^  auf  bic  gcnauen  Umj^anbc  nidit  beftnnen,  I  cannot 
recall  .  .  .  Der  ^unb  luartet  auf  fein  greffen.  5Werfe  ouf  bic  SfBortc  bc^  Se^rcr^. 
Sro^t  ntd^t  auf  cucr  9?ed)t  (Sch.).  After  adjectives  denoting  pride,  envy, 
anger,  malice,  e.g.,  ctfcrfud)tig,  neibifd),  ffclj,  bofc,  crboft :  cifcrfiidnlg  auf  fcinc 
e^rc  (Sch.) ;  |Mj  auf  fcinc  Unfc^ulb;  txho]i  auf  ben  ©efangenen  (iiber  would  mean 
cause).  Exact  time,  limit,  and  measure  ;  often  with  wH^.**  Here  belongs 
the  superlative,  see  300,  3.  Si^  aup^  33Iut.  Si^  auf  Speif  unb  2;ranf 
(Le.).  a^  tjl  cin  S3iertel  auf  brei,  a  quarter  past  two.  2luf  bic  5Dlinu'tc, 
©efu'nbc,  auf  ©c^u§n)cite,  at  shooting  distance.  33 i^  auf  bic  ^icige,  to  the 
last  drop.  3Iuf  fteben  fci^on  einei^  wiebcr  (Le.).  (Nathan  had  "  toward  "  or 
"  as  a  return  for  "  his  seven  dead  sons  one  child  in  Recha.)  2luf  cine  3J?arf 
gc|cn  l^unbcrt  9)fenni9c. 

4.  ^  i  n  t  e  r  +  "  behind,"  opposite  of  „»or."    See  305, 1,  2. 

It  denotes  inferiority  :  T)ic  franjoftfc^c  9frtiIIcric  flanb  weit  feinter  bcr  bcutfc^cn 
jurudf  (ambiguous,  either  stood  far  back  of  the  G.  or  was  much  inferior  to 
the  G.).  Notice  the  following  idioms  :  fid)  Winter  tttoai  ntad)en,  to  go  at  with 
energy.  3(^  fann  niAt  baMnter  fommcn,  I  cannot  understand  it.  S^  Mntcr 
ben  D^rcn  "^aben,  to  be  sly  (coll.)  ;  Winter  bic  Dt»ren  fcblagen,  to  give  a  box  on 
the  ear  :  ftd^  ctroaa  Winter  bic  D^rcn  fdiicikn,  to  mark  well. 

5.  3w  +  in,  into  (A.). 

The  German  and  English  prepositions  are  more  nearly  identical  than 
any  other  two.    See  305,  1,  2. 


306]        THE  PREPOSITION" — DATIVE   AND   ACCUSATIVE.          129 

3  n  +  Accusative. 

Denotes  direction,  including  transition,  change,  division  :  Scnn  ber 
Sci^  in  ©taub  jerfallcn,  lebt  ber  gro^c  9iame  noc^  (Sch.).  2)eutf(^lanb  scrrii  auf 
biefem  9ieid)«ta9e  in  jwet  9leUgiD'ncn  unb  imi  ^olitifc^e  9)artei'en  (id.). 

6.  5^1  e  b  e  n,  near,  by  the  side  of.  See  305,  1,2.  <  eneben, 
lit.  "  in  a  line  with. " 

7.  ii  b  e  r  +  over,  above.     See  305,  1,  2,  3. 

liber  +  Accusative. 

After  verbs  denoting  rule  and  superiority  over,  e.g.,  '^crrf^cn^  ftegenr 
ijerfugen  (dispose) ;  laughter,  astonishment,  disgust,  in  general  an  expres- 
sion of  an  affection  of  the  mind,  ^.^'..uberetwaig  lac^en,  erftaunen,  ftc^  .  .  .  be^ 
flagen^jtc^  .  .  .  entruilcn,  fic^  cirgern.  (For  an  older  simple  genit.)  ^arlber®ro§c 
ftegte  itbcr  bie  ©ac^fen.  'Ba^  3;eflament  serfiigt  iiber  ein  gro^etS  SSermogen.  9Bic 
fhi|te  ber  9)bbel  itber  bie  neuen  2i»re'en  (G.).  Die  ©efangenen  bcflagen  fid)  iilier 
i^re  aSebanblung.  Uber  fein  Sene^men  babe  ic^  m\6)  re(^t  gecirgert.  It  denotes 
time  and  excess  in  time,  number,  measure :  Uber^^  Sa^r*  a  year  hence, 
only  in  certain  phrases,  duration  :  uber  3lci6)t,  bie  9?ac^t  iiber.  ®en  <Bcihhat^ 
iiber  war  en  fte  )liae  (B.).  Uber  ein  3a^r,  more  than  a  year  (ambiguous, 
either  "more  than  a  year "  or  " a  year  hence  ").  Uber  brei  taufenb  ^anonen. 
Uber  afle  S3egriffe  [(^on,  beautiful  beyond  comprehension. 

When  it  denotes  duration  or  simultaneousness,  or  when  the  idea  of 
place  is  still  felt,  then  the  dative  follows ;  when  it  denotes  the  reason 
then  the  accusative  follows.  This  is  clear  when  the  same  noun  stands 
in  both  cases,  as  in  3(^  bin  uber  bem  Sud^e  eingefcblafen/  means  "  while  reading 
it  I  fell  asleep."  3cb  bin  iiber  ha^  33ucb  eingefc^Iafen  means  "  it  was  stupid, 
therefore  I  fell  asleep."  Uber  ber  93efd)reibung  ba  ^ergeff  ic^  ben  ganjen  ^ricg 
(Sch.).  <Si^abe,  ba§  iiber  bem  fc^bnen  2Sa§n  besS  Seben^  bej^e  ^alfte  ba^in  ge^t 
(Sch.). 

Notice  »on  etwa^  and  iiber  etwa^  frrecben.  Sd)  i)aht  baioon  gefprocben,  I  have 
mentioned  it.  3d)  ^((bt  baruber  gefprocben,  I  have  treated  of  it,  spoken  at 
length. 

8.  Unter  -f  under.     See  305,  3. 

In  the  abstract  sense  this  rule  holds  good.  It  denotes  protection,  in- 
feriority, lack  in  numbers  (Dative,  opposite  of  uber),  mingling  with,  con- 
temporaneous circumstance  (D.).  It  stands  for  the  partitive  genit. 
(=  among).  Unter  bem  ®d)U$e.  ®er  ^elbroebel  fiebt  unter  bem  Dfftuer.  2Ber 
mU  unter  bie  <Spbaten,  ber  .  .  .  ,  he  who  wants  to  become  a  soldier  (Folk- 


130  SYNTAX   OF  THE   CONJUNCTIONS.  [306- 

Bong).  (£r  tfl  brunter  geblte^cn,  lie  did  not  reach  the  number,  gamhai 
offnete  feincm  Sn'^lfdhofe  unter  (amid)  freubtgem  Burufe  bic  S^ore  Jcieber  (Sch.), 
3Ber  unter  (among)  bicfen  (D.)  reic^t  an  unfcrn  ^^rieblanb  ?  (Sch.)  (!oon  biefen  would 
be  "  of  these  ").  It  denotes  time  when  none  of  the  exacter  modes  of  ex- 
pressing time  is  used  :  2Bir  finb  geboren  unter  gleic^en  ©ternen  (Sch.).  Unter 
ber  a^egierung  ber  ^cnigin  25ictcria  =  in  the  reign  ;  tr»a^renb  implies  not  a  sin- 
gle act,  but  a  commensurate  duration,  =  during.  ^Dcr  Safrifta'n  fc^Itcf 
wci^renb  ber  ^^rebigt,  but  ging  unter  ber  ^^rebigt  ^inaui?.  In  „unterbc|]"en,''  and 
other  compounds  of  that  class,  inbefTcn,  etc.,  the  gen.  is  probably  adverbial 
and  not  called  for  by  the  preposition. 
See  jwifd^cn. 

9.  55  0  r  -I-  before,  in  front  of.    See  305,  1,  2,  3. 
35or  +  Dative. 

Introduces  the  object  of  fear  and  abhorrence  :  ^cin  Stfengittcr  fi^uf^t  »or 
il^rer  2ijl  (Sch.).  Scr  geiinffen  Srinnerungen  ntcd^t^  ic^  mic^  gem  buten  (id.).  9)?ir 
graut  ijor  bir.  Time  before  which  anything  is  to  happen  or  has  happened : 
2)er  ^onig  ijl  gefcnnen,  »j?r  SIbenb  in  9)iaDrib  nod)  ein;,utreffcn  (Sch.).  95or  breipig 
Sa^ren,  thirty  years  ago.  SJor  ad)t  lagen,  a  week  ago.  Hindrance  and 
cause  :  !Die  ®ro§mutter  wirb  »or  Summer  flerkn  (Scli.).  !Dcn  2BaIb  ijor  lauter 
SBiiiumcn  ntc^t  fe^en  (Prov.).  SSor  hunger,  *or  2!ur)l  fterben.  Preference  :  »or 
ollen  !Dingen,  above  all  things ;  l^errlid^  »or  aflen. 

S5or  and  fiir  are  doublets  and  come  from  fora  and/w?**  respectively.  In 
M.  H.  G.fur  +  A.  answered  the  question  whither?  vor  +  D.  the  ques- 
tion where?  In  N.  H.  G.  they  were  confounded,  even  in  Lessing  very 
frequently,  but  in  the  last  seventy  years  the  present  syntactical  difference 
has  prevailed.    Goethe  and  Schiller  rarely  confound  them. 

10.  Stt'ifc^^tt' 

•'  Between  "  tiDO  objects  in  place,  time,  and  in  the  figurative  sense.  JRein 
mu§  e^  Bleibcn  jwifc^en  mir  unb  i^m  (Sch.).  'Die  SBolfcnfaule  fam  jttiifd)en  ba(?  ^eer 
ber  Slgi^ptcr  unb  ba^  ^ecr  S^raeU  (B.).  See  305. 1,  2 ;  also  unter  =  among, 
sub  8. 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   CONJUNCTIONS. 

307.  The  conjunctions  are  divided  :  1.  Into  the  coordinat- 
ing, like  unt,  tcnn,  etc. ;  2.  Into  the  subordinating,  e.  g.,  ireil, 
ta,  aU,  etc.  They  are  treated  in  the  General  Syntax,  where 
see  the  various  clauses. 


309]  GENERAL  SYNTAX — SIMPLE   SENTENCE.  131 

GENERAL    SYNTAX. 
I.    THE   SIMPLE   SENTENCE. 

308.  Subject  and  verb  make  up  the  simple  sentence.  This 
sentence  may  be  expanded  by  complements  of  the  subject  and 
of  the  verb.  The  subject  may  be  either  a  substantive,  a  sub- 
stantive pronoun,  or  other  words  used  as  substantives.  The 
attributes  of  the  subjects  may  be  adjective,  participle,  adjec- 
tive pronouns,  numerals.  These  are  adjective  attributes. 
Substantives,  substantive  pronouns,  and  the  infinitive  are 
substantive  attributes.  Their  relation  to  the  subject  may  be 
that  of  apposition  and  of  coordination;  or  they  may  be  con- 
nected by  the  genitive,  or  by  preposition  +  case  in  subordi- 
nation. Preposition  +  case  is  more  expressive  than  the 
genitive  alone,  when  the  subject  is  to  be  defined  as  to  time, 
place,  value,  kind,  means,  purpose. 

The  predicate  is  either  a  simple  verb  or  a  copula  +  adjec- 
tive or  substantive  or  pronoun  which  may  be  again  expanded 
like  the  subject.  The  complements  of  the  verb  are  object  and 
adverb.  The  object  is  either  a  noun,  substantive  pronoun,  or 
other  words  used  as  nouns.  It  stands  in  the  accusative,  dative 
or  genitive,  or  is  expressed  by  preposition  +  case.  The 
adverb  qualifies  the  verb,  adjective,  and  other  adverb.  It  is 
either  an  adverb  proper  or  preposition  +  case  of  substan- 
tive or  what  is  used  as  such.  It  may  also  be  a  genitive  or  an 
accusative. 

309.  As  to  form  the  main  sentences  may  be  divided  as 
follows  : 

1.  Declarative  sentences,  which  either  affirm  something  of 
the  subject  or  deny  something  with  regard  to  it.  Affirmative  : 
^urj  ift  Jer  @cbmerj  wnD  ewig  ift  cie  %v(uu  (Sch.).  Du  baft  Xia^ 
ma'nten  unC  ^erlen  (Heine).     Negative  :  Xa^J  Scben  ift  ter  ®iiter 


132  GEN^ERAL  SYNTAX — SIMPLE   SE-SrTE:N"CE.  [309- 

l^od^pe^  nic^t  (Scb.).     (Ste  follen  i^n  ni(^t  ^aben,  ten  freien  beutfd}cn 
Sfl^ein  (Beck). 

1.  The  double  negative  is  still  freqaent  in  the  classics  and  collo- 
quially, but  it  is  not  in  accordance  with  correct  usage  now  :  .^cine  Suft  von 
feinct  (Seite  (G.,  classical).  9)?an  fie^tr  bap  er  an  nictit^  feinen  5(nteil  ntmmt 
(F.  3489)  (said  by  Margaret,  coll.).  After  the  comparative  it  also  occurs 
in  the  classics  :  Sir  muffen  ba^  SBerf  in  biefen  ndd^ilen  Sagen  wetter  forbern,  ali 
ti  in  Sa^ren  nic^t  gebie^  (Sch.). 

2.  After  verbs  of  "hindering,"  ''forbidding,"  "  warning,"  like  »cr* 
pten,  »er^inbern,  warnen,  verbieten,  etc.,  the  dependent  clause  may  contain 
»nici^t»:  9'^ur  ^utet  euc^,  ba^'i^r  mir  nic^t^  sergiept  (G.).  SRimrn  bi(^  in  5l(^t,  ba§ 
bi^  9?a^e  nid^t  serberbe  (Sch.). 

3.  When  the  negative  does  not  affect  the  predicate,  the  sentence  may 
still  be  aflBrmative.  5Ric^t  ntir,  ben  cignen  5lugen  mogt  i^r  glauben  (Sch.).  But 
nic^t  mir  stands  for  a  whole  sentence. 

2.  Interrogative  sentences :  Jpaft  tu  ta^  (Sd^lo§  (^efe^en?  (Uli.). 
3Ber  reitet  fo  fpdt  turc^  5^ac^t  unt  2}mt?  (G.).  Double  question  : 
S^ar  tcr  Settler  »erruc!t  oter  war  er  ktrunfeit  ?  ©lautft  tu  tai?  ol>er 
ni^t?    SBillft  tu  immer  wetter  fdjtreifen?  (G.).    JC^er  irei§  ta^  nidjt  ? 

For  the  potential  subjunctive  in  questions,  see  284,  3. 
For  the  indirect  question,  see  325,  3. 

3.  The  exclamatory  sentence  lias  not  an  independent  form. 
Any  other  sentence,  even  a  dependent  clause,  may  become 
exclamatory:  D,  tu  2Balt,  o  i^r  33erge  triibcn  irie  feic  i^r  fo  jung 
i^ebUektt  nnt  i(^  Mn  trorten  fo  alt  I  (Uh.).  Xa^  ift  ta5  2o5  te^ 
(Bdjonen  auf  ter  @rte  I  (Sch.).  SBa^  tanf'  (owe)  id^  t^m  ntcbt  afle^ ! 
(id.).    2Cie  ter  ^na^e  geiva^fcn  ift  I 

For  the  imperative  and  optative  sentences,  see  284,  2;  286. 

310.  Elliptical  clauses  generally  contain  only  the  predicate 
or  a  part  of  it,  including  the  object  or  adverb.  ®uten  'iB'iorgcn  I 
®elt !  Truly!  (33ctroffen  I  You  have  hit  it!  Sangfam  I  Sdjnell  I 
etc.    It  is  very  frequent  in  the  imperative,  see  287. 

Proverbs  often  omit  the  verb:  23tcl  ®efd^rci  unb  njcnig  2BoIIe.  5fleinc 
^ tuber,  fleine  <Sorgen;  grD§e  ^inber,  grp{5c  *3crgcn.  See  309,  3,  in  which  the 
last  examples  are  really  dependent  questions. 


313]  GEKERAL  SYNTAX — SIMPLE  SENTENCE.  133 

Concord  of  Subject  and  Predicate. 

311.  The  predicate  (verb)  agrees  with  the  subject  in  num- 
ber and  person. 

Two  or  more  subjects  (generally  connected  by  unr)  require 
a  verb  in  the  plural :  Unter  Un  ^Inwejcnten  n?ed?fetn  gurc^t  unD 
(Erftaunen  (Sch.).  £o^  an  tern  iperjen  nagten  mir  ter  Unmut  unl  tie 
©treitbegier  (id.). 

1.  If  the  subjects  are  conceived  as  a  unit  and  by  a  license  greater  in 
German  than  in  English,  the  verb  may  stand  in  the  singular  ;  also  in  the 
inverted  order  if  the  first  noun  is  in  the  singular.  Ex. :  5Ba^  ift  ba^  fiir 
ein  "Slam,  ba§  i^m  SBinb  unb  2J?eer  ge^torfam  ift  (B.).  (£^'  fprec^e  2Belt  unb  ^ad)^ 
mlt,  etc.  (Sch.).  2)a  fommt  ber  2)Zuffer  unb  feine  ^nec^te.  By  license  :  Sagen 
unb  S^un  t)!  jweterlei  (Prov.).  T)a^  ^jj^i^trauen  unb  bie  Siferfuc^t  .  .  .  crn)a(|tc 
talb  wieber  (Sch.). 

2.  The  plural  verb  stands  after  titles  in  the  singular  in  addressing 
royalty  and  persons  of  high  standing.  In  speaking  of  ruling  princes  the 
plural  also  stands.  Servants  also  use  it  in  speaking  of  their  masters 
when  these  have  a  title.  Ex.:  (£ure  ((£».)  ^ajef^at,  !Dur(^Iau(|t,  (Sxcellenj 
befe^len?  (Seine  aJiaieftdt  ber  ^aifer  ^aben  geru^t,  etc.  Der  |)err  ®e|eimc 
^ofrat  finb  ni(^t  ju  ^aufe.    2)ie  ^cvrfcl)aft  finb  au^gegangen. 

312.  After  a  collective  noun  the  verb  stands  more  regularly 
in  the  singular  than  in  Eng.  Only  when  this  noun  or  an  in- 
definite numeral  is  accompanied  by  a  genitive  pi.,  the  plural 
verb  is  the  rule.  In  early  N.  H.  G.  this  plural  was  very  com- 
mon. X)ie  ^Jenge  flo^.  Mi  SJelt  nimmt  Zni  (G.).  Unt»  ta^ 
iunge  3SoIt  ter  ©c^nitter  fliegt  jum  Xanj  (Sch.)  Dort  fommcn  ein 
paar  au^  ter  Md)t  (Sch.).     (Eine  ^enge  @ier  ftnb  »crborkn. 

313.  When  the  subject  is  a  neuter  pronoun,  ei?,  W^,  tad, 
etc. ,  the  neuter  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate  noun  or  sub- 
stantive pronoun  in  number:  Tad  warm  mir  felige  3:age  (Over- 
beck).  ®d  ftnt  rie  %xix6>tt  itjred  J^un^^  (Sch.).  (Sd  jogen  trei  Sager 
tT?ot)(  auf  tie  ^irfd)  (Uh.).  In  this  case  ed  is  only  expletive.  23er 
fmt)  tiefe  ? 


134  GENERAL  SYNTAX — SIMPLE   SENTENCE.  [314- 

314.  TMien  subjects  are  connected  by  entmeber  —  ottx,  n\6>t 
nwr  —  fontern  an*,  ircrer  —  ttec^,  feirotVl  —  aU  {a\i6>),  the  verb  has 
the  person  and  number  of  the  first  subject  and  joins  this  one 
if  the  subjects  are  of  different  persons.  The  verb  for  the 
second  subject  is  omitted.  Sntmeter  tu  gebft  (or  gel)ft  tu)  olcv 
i&),  ZdU  mar  i&i  ftulc,  teil^  er.  Subjects  of  the  same  person 
connected  by  the  above  correlatives  ;  by  otcr,  itebft,  mit,  famt 
have  as  a  rule  a  singnlar  verb  and  the  verb  joins  the  second 
subject.  Xem  5>oIfe  fann  merer  geuer  bn  nocb  2i3ajyer  (Sch.), 
Neither  fire  nor  water  can  harm  those  people. 

315.  If  the  subjects  are  of  different  persons,  the  first  has 
the  preference  over  the  second,  the  second  over  the  third. 
Moreover,  the  plural  of  the  respective  pronouns  is  often 
added.  Xer  la  un^  icb,  mir  ftnD  aug  Sger  (Sch.).  tn  unl)  rer 
^Setter,  (i^r)  QtH  na(^  ipaufe. 

The  adjective  as  a  predicate  or  attribute  has  been  sufficiently  treated 
under  the  adjective,  see  210-225. 

316.  The  noun  as  a  predicate  agrees  with  the  subject  in 
case  ;  if  the  subject  is  a  person,  also  in  number  and  gender, 
but  in  the  latter  only  when  there  are  special  forms  for  mascu- 
line and  feminine.  See  167.  Ex.:  Tie  SC^eltijefd^id^te  ift  ta^ 
SSeltgerid^t  (Sch.).  tie  9iot  ift  tie  Gutter  ter  grfintung  (Prov.). 
Xa»$  ?OUt^ctt  mill  je^t  Srjie^erin  merten,  juerft  moUte  fie  @c^au|>ielcrin 
merten. 

1.  If  one  person  is  addressed  as  ®ic  or  3^r,  the  substantive  stands  of 
course  in  the  singular,  „<Bk  ftnb  cin  gropcr  5Weit^er  im  ©d^tepen."  Poetic  and 
emphatic  are  such  turns  as  :  9tcgicrtc  9lcc^t  fo  Icigct  i^r  »or  mir  im  ©taube  jc^t» 
benn  id^  bin  ©ucr  ^onig  (Sch,,  spoken  by  Maria  Stuart). 

317.  The  substantive  in  apposition  has  the  same  concords 
as  the  substantive  in  the  predicate,  only  the  rule  as  to  case  is 
frequently  found  unobserved  in  the  best  writers.  2Bai^  5)enud 
HxiD,  tie  33ringerin  te^  ®i\xd^,  fann  'Sllax^,  lev  Stern  U^  Ungliirf^ 


320]  GEITERAL   STJfTAX — COMPOUN"D   SENTENCE.  135 

fd^neC  gerreifen  (Sch.).     ^'^x  fennet  i^n,  ten  6c^opfer  turner  ipeerc 
(id.). 

The  apposition  may  be  emphasized  by  namlic^  and  aU  :  S^nen,  aid  cittern 
gereiften  SWanne,  glau6en  wtr. 

II.    THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE. 

318.  The  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 
clauses,  which  may  be  coordinate  (of  equal  grammatical 
value)  or  subordinate  (one  dependent  upon  the  other). 

Coordinate  Sentences. 
We  may  distinguish  various  kinds  of  coordinate  sentences, 
which  may  or  may  not  be  connected  by  conjunctions. 

319.  Copulative  Sentences.  The  conjunctions  unt,  au6>, 
tei?gleic()en,  g(ei(^fatli^,  ebenfaU^,  and  their  compounds,  teegleid^en 
m6^,  fo  and),  eknfo  aud) ;  ttidjt  nur  —  fontern  auc^ ;  n\M  aOein  — 
fontern  m^  ;  fomobl  —  aU  (auc^)  ;  tueter  —  nod)  indicate  mere 
parataxis.  3"^^"^/  <iu§erbem,  liberties,  ja,  \o^av,  ja  fogar,  ijielme^r 
emphasize  the  second  clauses.  Partitive  conjunctions  are 
ttiU  —  teil^,  ^alb  —  ^alb,  jum  2:eil  —  jum  ZtiL  Ordinal  con- 
junctions are  erften^  —  gtreiten^,  etc.  ;  guerft  —  tann  —  ferner, 
en^Iic^,  jule^t;  6alC  —  kiD.  Explanatory  are  namlid^,  unt  jmar, 
Ex. :  Vk  maV  ift  Hein,  feer  (Spa§  ift  gro§  (F.  4049).  ^aI6  jog  pe 
i^n,  Wh  fanf  er  ^in  (G.).  3d)  mitt  meter  (eugnen  nod)  bcfc^onigen, 
raf  ids  fte  Berefeete  (id.).  91id)t  atletn  tie  erften  53Iuten  fatten  ah, 
fontern  auc^  tie  ^rii^te  (id.). 

1.  Notice  that  the  adverbial  conjunctions  such  as  Batb,  )^ulc|t,  harm, 
ttcber  —  no(^f  i^alb,  tetl^,  etc.,  always  cause  inversion.  Some  admit  of 
inversion,  but  do  not  require  it,  e.g.,  audj,  erjlen^,  ndmlid^.  The  ordinal 
conjunctions  and  nd'mlid)  are  frequently  separated  by  a  comma,  then  no 
inversion  takes  place,  ©rjlen^  t)!  t^  fo  ber  S3rauc^,  jtcctten^  toifl  man^<3  felber 
auc^  (Busch). 

320.  Adversative  Sentences.  1.  One  excludes  the  other 
(disjunctive-adversative)  :    oter,  or,  entwcter  —  oter,  fonft  (else), 


136  GENERAL  SYNTAX — COMPOUKD   SENTENCE.  320- 

antcmfafl^,  otherwise.  Ex.:  Sr  ( S^adenftetn)  mufte  entwehr  ^ax 
n\6^t  t^efe^len  ofer  mit  ^ollfommener  grei^eit  t)anteln  (Sch.).  One 
contradicts  the  other  (contradictory  -  adversative)  :  fontern, 
»ielmel)r,  fontern  ♦  *  .  ijielme^r.  The  first  clause  contains  ni^t, 
itoax,  freili^,  aller^ing^,  njo^L  So  n?agten  fte  fid)  nictt  in  tie  5^a^e 
ter  geinte,  fontern  fe^rten  unijerric^teter  Sad^e  juriid  (Sch.). 

2.  The  second  sentence  concedes  the  statement  of  the  first 
in  part  or  wholly.  The  first  may  contain  nic^t,  etc.,  as  above; 
the  second  has  ahx,  often  in  the  connection  akr  tod,  tennod) 
aber,  aber  gleic^njo^l;  aflein,  iibrigen^;  nur.  Mm  is  stronger  than 
aber* 

Mark  the  contrast  between  aber  and  fonbern,  Eng.  but.  3lber  concedes, 
fonbern  contradicts.  (£r  a^ar  jwar  nic^t  franf,  aber  boc^  nic^t  baju  aufgele^t,  "but 
he  did  not  feel  like  it."  (£i  tt)ar  nld)t  franf,  fonbern  er  war  nur  ni(^t  ba^u  auf^' 
gelegt  (he  only  did  not  feel  like  doing  it).  S5iele  ftnb  berufen  aber  wenige  ftnb 
aui3ertpdt)let  (B.).  1)cn  Ungc^euern,  ben  ©Igantifc^en  ^atte  man  i^n  (Scrnctfle) 
nennen  follen,  aber  ni4)t  ben  ®ro§en  (Le.).  SBaffer  t:^ut'^  freilic^  nic^t  (It  is  not 
the  water  that  is  effective  in  baptism),  fonbern  ba^  Sort  ®otte«,  fo  (which) 
mit  unb  bei  bem  SBaffer  i|l  (Lu.). 

3.  The  second  sentence  states  something  new  or  different 
or  in  contrast  with  the  first  without  contradicting  or  exclud- 
ing or  Hmiting  the  same.  It  occurs  commonly  in  narrative 
and  may  be  called  "  connexive- or  contrasting-adversative." 
Conjunctions:  aber,  ^ingecjen,  tage^en,  iibrigen^,  tro^tem,  glcidmoW, 
intefjen,  etc.  Tie  33eteitigung  ift  gro§ ;  aber  grower  ift  feine  (Senate 
(Le.).  (S^  fc^firtt  ein  ffia{\d  unt  tod)  ift  e^^  fetn^  (G.).  S^  ift  tie 
fd>bnfte  ^offnung;  tod^  ift  e^  nur  eine  ipoffnung  (Sch.). 

321.  Causal  Sentences.  One  gives  the  reason  or  cause  for 
the  other.  Conjunctions:  t(a)rum,  te^wcjien,  taber,  tenn,  itamliA, 
etc.  The  clause  containing  the  reason  generally  stands 
second,  the  one  beginning  with  „tcnn"  always.  Notice  tenn, 
"for,"  always  calls  for  the  normal  order.  Ex.:  <2oItaten  iraren 
tcuer,  tenn  tie  "Mma^c  get)t  nad^  tern  OMiid  (Sch.).  (5ine  Durdlaud^ 
tigfeit  la^t  cr  fic^  ncunenj  trum  mujj  er  (Soltatcn  ^alten  fbnnen  (id.). 


325]        GEKERAL  SYITTAX — SUBORDINATE  SEKTENCES.        137 

322.  Illative  Sentences.  One  sentence  is  an  inference  or 
effect  of  the  other.  Closely  related  to  the  causal.  Conjunc- 
tions :  fo,  a'lfo,  fomi't,  foIgUd),  mitt)i'n,  te'mnad),  etc.  SJieine  Mt6>k 
(right  hand)  ift  gegen  ten  Tirud  ter  2ie6e  unem|>fincl{(^  ♦  ♦  .  fo 
(then)  feiD  i^r  ®o^  ^on  Serlic^ingen  (G.).  X>  i  e  ©ornten  alfo  [(^einen 
un0  nid^t  me^r  (Sch. ). 

Subordinate  Sentences. 

323.  We  shall  distinguish  three  classes  of  dependent 
clauses,  according  to  the  logical  value  of  the  part  of  speech 
they  represent: 

1.  Substantive  clauses,  with  the  value  of  a  noun. 

2.  Adjective  clauses,  with  the  value  of  an  adjective. 

3.  Adverbial  clauses,  with  the  value  of  an  adverb. 

Substantive  Clauses. 

324.  The  clause  is  subject :  Za^  (hn  ifi  ter  f^^uc^  Der  bofeti 
Z^at,  ta§  [te  fortiud^rent)  33bfe5  mu§  gebaren  (Sch.).  *i)0^ic^  reuet,  ta§ 
ii^'0  t^at  (id.).  Predicate  (N.)  :  Xie  ?i}lenfcben  fin^  md)t  immer 
\M^  fie  f(^einen  (Le.).  Object  (A.):  ®laubft  tu  nic^t,  taf  einc 
3Barnung5ftimme  in  2;rdumen  oorkteutcnt  ju  un^  fprtdst?  (Sch.). 
3Ba^  man  fd^marj  auf  n?ei§  befi^t,  !ann  man  getroft  nac^  ipaufe  tragen 
(F.  1966-7).  Dative  :  m\)l  t>em,  ter  bi^  auf  tie  ^^ei^e  (to  the 
very  end)  rein  gelebt  fein  Seben  ^at  (He.).  Genitive  :  S3eg  ta»5 
Jperj^otl  ift,  te5  ge^t  ter  ^nnl  ii&er  (B.).  Apposition:  'I^en  ebeht 
(Stol3,ta§  tu  til*  felbft  nic^t  geniigeft,  i^eqei^'  id)  tir  (G.). 

325.  As  to  their  contents  the  substantive  clauses  may  be 
grouped  as  follows: 

1.  X)a§,  or  declarative  clauses,  always  introduced  by  „ta^J' 
©(^on  (Sofrate^  let)rte,  taj  tie  <BuU  te5  9)Jenfcben  unfterHid5  fei,  or  tie 
2e()re,ta§  tie  ®eelc  .  .  .  ,  or  wix  glauben,  tap  tie  ©eele  .  ♦  ♦ 

More  examples  in  324. 


138       GENERAL  SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE  SENTENCES.        [325- 

2.  Clauses  containing  indirect  questions  :  a.  Questions  after 
the  predicate  always  introduced  by  d6  ;  in  the  main  clause  may 
stand  as  correlatives  ii,  ta^,  tcffen,  taijon,  etc.  (£r  ^atte  nidt 
gefd^ricBen,  06  er  gefunc  gebliekn  (Bii.).  (See  F.  1667-70).  b. 
Questions  after  any  other  part  of  the  sentence,  introduced  by 
an  interrogative  pronoun,  by  an  interrogative  adverb,  simple 
or  compounded  with  a  preposition,  viz.,  ttjer,  tt>a^,  ttJie,  luo,  ttjann, 
a^omit,  mot)er,  wol)irt,  etc.  Ex.:  ?^raget  nic^t,  ttjarum  t(^  traure  (Sch.). 
See  F.  1971.  ^egreifft  bu,  iute  antac^tig  fd^marmen  »icl  leid^ter  aU 
gut  ^anbeln  ift  ?  (Le.).  9lo(^  fel)It  unc  ^unte,  ma^  in  Untemalten 
unD  @d?wi93  gefc^e^en  (Sch.).  c.  The  question  may  be  disjunc- 
tive, introduced  by  ob  —  o^er;  oB  —  otcr  ob;  ob  —  ob.  Ex.: 
5(ber  fag'  mtr,  ob  mir  ftel}en  oter  ob  anr  wciter  ge^en  (F.  3906-7). 
Unl  e^'  ter  3;ag  ftc^  netgt,  mu§  fic^'^  erfldren,  ob  i(^  ten  greunD,  ob  ic^ 
ten  33ater  foil  entbe^ren  (Sch.). 

Remakks. — 1.  The  mood  in  1  and  2,  according  to  circumstances,  is 
either  the  indicative  or  the  potential  subjunctive.  See  the  examples 
sub  1  and  in  324. 

2.  In  „ba§"-clauses  the  other  two  word-orders  are  also  possible,  but 
without  ba^:  <Sofrate^  le^rte,  bic  ©eele  fei  un|lcrblic^.  ©^  rourbe  be^auptet,  geilcrn 
^abe  man  i^n  noc^  auf  ber  <i5tra§e  gefe^en. 

3.  When  the  subject  is  the  same  in  both  clauses  or  when  the  subject 
of  the  dependent  clause  is  the  object  of  the  main  clause,  in  short,  when 
no  ambiguity  is  caused,  the  infinitive  clause  can  stand  in  place  of  ba§  + 
dependent  order.  2)?an  boft,  ba^  untergcgangene  <o^lff  nD(|  ju  ^eben.  2)te 
^.^olijei  bftt  bem  ^aufmanne  befof)Ien,  fein  ©cbilb  l^o^er  ju  l^oingen. 

3.  Clauses  with  indirect  speech — after  verbs  of  saving,  as- 
serting, knowing,  thinking,  wishing,  demanding,  commanding. 
They  either  begin  with  ta^  with  dependent  order  or  they  have 
the  order  of  the  direct  speech.  The  subjunctive  is  the  reigning 
liiood.     For  examples  and  tense,  see  282. 

4.  Clauses  containing  direct  speech,  a  quotation:  'Ea^  SCort 
ift  frei,  fagt  Der  General  (Sch.).  Xer  ^onig  rief:  3i^  ^^^  ©anger 
Da? 


328]         GENERAL  SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE   SENTENCES.       139 

Adjective  Clauses. 

326.  The  clause  is  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun  or  by 
a  relative  adverb.  Nothing  can  precede  the  pronoun  in  the 
clause  except  a  preposition.  Unless  the  personal  pronoun  is 
repeated  after  the  relative,  the  verb  stands  in  the  third  person. 
Ex.:  Du  fprid)ft  oon  3^^^^"/  ^^^  ^ergangen  fint  (Sch.).  Xie  @tatte, 
tie  ein  guter  ^}}ienfd)  betrat,  ift  eingcmei^t  (G.).  Der  t)u  i)on  tern 
^immel  U\t,  filler  grieve  .  ♦  ♦  (id.). 

For  use  of  the  pronouns  and  more  examples,  see  255-258. 

327.  1.  The  relative  pronoun  can  never  be  omitted  as  in  English. 
In  several  relative  clauses  referring  to  the  same  vrord,  the  pronoun  need 
stand  only  once,  if  the  same  case  is  required  ;  if  a  different  case  is  neces- 
sary, the  pronoun  should  be  repeated.  This  is  often  sinned  against,  for 
instance  by  Schiller :  <Sie^  ba  tie  SJerfe,  bie  er  fdjrieb  unb  feine  (S3lut  o,t\k^t, 
instead  of  worin  er  .  ♦  .  Qefle^t. 

3.  The  relative  clauses  beginning  with  mx,  ioa^  without  antecedents 
are  really  identical  with  substantive  clauses,  e.g.,  2)a  fe^t,  ba§  t^r  tiefjinnig 
fagt,  toa^  in  besS  5D^enfd}en  ^irn  nic^t  pa§t.  %ux  toa^  brein  gel^t  unb  mc|t  brein  Qt^t, 
ein  fraftig  2Bort  m  ©tenften  fle^t  (F.  1950-3). 

3.  Case-attraction  between  relative  and  antecedent  is  now  rare. 

Sll<3  IDelc^er,  denoting  rather  a  cause  than  a  quality,  is  now  archaic,  but 
still  quite  frequent  in  Lessing's  time,  ^ma^,  aU  ttjelc^er  fti^  an  ben  Mopcn 
(mere)  t^iguren  erge^et,  =  "^neas,  since  he  delights  ..."  (Le.).  25on  ber 
Jiragobie,  aU  iikr  bie  un(3  bie  Beit  j^temltc^  a\lt^  haxau^  (of  Aristotle's  Poetics) 
gonnen  ♦  .  .  "  about  tragedy,  in  so  far  as  time  has  favored  us  ...  "  (id.). 
,,'Da"  in  the  relative  clause  is  no  longer  usage.  SBer  ba  jlefet,  fe^e  ju,  ba§  er 
nic^t  fatte  (B.). 

328.  The  mood  depends  upon  circumstances.  The  poten- 
tial subjunctive  (of  the  preterit  and  pluperfect)  is  frequent 
after  a  negative  main  clause.  S^  ift  leinc  gro^e  ©tatt  in  Tieutfd);^ 
lanb,  Me  ter  DnM  nicbt  befud^t  ^atte  (=  did  not  visit).  The  sub- 
junctive of  indirect  speech  also  stands.  %\z  0lec|ierung  tcr 
^Sereintcjten  ©taaten  kfc^iuerte  ft(^  u6er  Me  Sanbung  foijieler  3lrmen, 
iueld)e  manege  europaif(^e  Stegierung  fortfc^icfe. 


140      GENEKAL  SYKTAX — SUB0RDI3!^ATE   SENTEKCES.        [329- 

Adtekbial  Clauses. 

329.  They  are  introduced  by  the  subordinating  conjunc- 
tions. The  main  clause  often  has  an  emphatic  adverb,  e.  g., 
alfo,  tarn,  ta,  t)a|in,  je|t,  ta^er,  tarum.  @o  does  not,  as  a  rule, 
stand  after  dependent  clauses  expressing  time  and  place,  and 
generally  becomes  superfluous  in  English  after  dependent 
clauses  of  manner. 

330.  Temporal  Clauses.  1.  Contemporaneous  action  imply- 
ing either  duration  or  only  point  of  time.  Conjunctions  : 
ira^rent,  intent,  inte5  (inteffen),  n?ie,  ta  (all  meaning  "while," 
"as");  folange  (aU);  fo  oft  (aU);  fo  kit)  (aU) ;  Da,  mo  (rare  and 
colloquial)  =  when;  mnn  (n?ann  is  old)  +  "  when,"  refers  to 
the  future;  al3,  "when,"  refers  always  to  the  past  with  the 
preterit;  mil,  tieioeil,  fcemeil,  =  +  "while,"  are  archaic, 
©olange,  fo  oft,  fobalt  are  now  much  more  common  without 
„aU." 

Ex.:  STc^ !  »iellei(^t  inbem  (as)  wir  ^ojfen,  ^at  un^  Unveil  fc^on  gctroffen  (Sch.). 
^ux  ber  ©tarfe  wirb  ba^  ^Scfeicffal  jmingen,  mm  ber  ©c^wac^ling  unterliegt  (Scb.). 
Unb  wie  (as)  cr  ft^t  unb  wie  er  laufc^t,  teilt  fi^  bie  ^^lut  empor  (G.).  311(3  bed 
<Sanctu<3  SSorte  famem  ba  fd^eUt  er  breimal  bet  bem  ^amtn  («(Sanctud  ..."  is 
part  of  the  mass)  (Sell.).  ©^  irrt  ber  2J?enfc^,  folang'  er  flrett  (F.  317).  <Bobalb 
bie  erflen  Cerc^en  fc^wirrten  (erfd^ien)  ein  3)?ab(i)en  fc^on  unb  wunberbar  (Scb.).  !Dad 
(£ifcn  mu§  gcfcl)mtebct  werben,  tDeil  ed  glit^t  (Prov.).  SSiC  mir  bie  ^anb  noc^ 
reid^en,  berweil  id^  ekn  kb  (=  while  I  am  loading  the  musket)  (Uh.). 

2.  Antecedent  action^  i.  e.,  the  action  of  the  dependent  clause 
precedes  that  of  the  main  clause.  Conjunctions  :  nad^tem, 
after ;  ta,  dd,  ttjenn,  after,  when ;  feittem,  fett,  feittem  ta§  (all 
mean  +  since)  ;  fobalt  (aU),  fowie,  mie,  as  soon  as  ;  the  adverb 
!aum  +  inverted  order. 

Ex. :  9Zimmer  (no  more)  fang  x^  freubige  Cieber,  fett  td^  beine  ©timme  I'm 
(Sch.)  SBenn  (after)  ber  Mh  in  <Btavib  jerfatten,  lebt  ber  grope  9?amc  nod)  (Sch.). 
Unb  wie  cr  oinft  mit  bem  Singer,  auf  t^ut  jld^  ber  weite  3»tnger  (id.),  ^aum  roax 
ber  SJatcr  tot,  fo  fommt  ein  ieber  mit  fcinem  Oiing  (Le.).    (Notice  the  inversion.) 


332j         GENERAL   SYN^TAX — SUBORDINATE   SENTENCES.         141 

2)er  ^onig  yerliep  S'Jiirn'berg,  nac^bcm  er  e^  jur  ^^itrforge  mit  einer  l^tnlanglic^en 
SBefa^ung  »erfet)en  ^atte  (Scli.). 

3.  Subsequent  action.  The  action  of  the  dependent  clause 
follows.  Conjunctions:  S^e,  beijor,  +  "ere",  "before";  Me, 
until,  with  or  without  baf . 

Ex. :  9?ie  ^erac^tc  ben  9Jtann,  eV  bu  fein  Snn^rc^  erfannt  "^af!  (He.).  Se^or 
n>ir'^  laffen  rinnen,  Betet  einen  fromnten  ©^jruc^  (Sch.).  23t^  bie  ©lode  ftc^  »er^ 
fii^Iet,  lafjl  bie  flrenge  5lrBett  ru^n  (id.),  e^e  wtr  e^  un^  »erfa^en  (unexpectedly), 
brac^  ber  SSagen  pfammen. 

a.  The  main  clause  may  be  emphasized  by  bann,  bamalg,  bann,  barauf, 
and  fo,  if  it  follows  the  dependent  clause. 

In  2  and  3  the  potential  subjunctive  can  stand. 

331.  Local  Clauses.  They  denote  the  place  and  direction 
of  the  action  of  the  main  clause.  They  begin  with  njo,  Va^^xn, 
njo^er,  and  the  main  clause  may  contain  a  corresponding  ba, 
ta^itt,  ta^er,  |ier* 

Ex. :  So  2J?enfcf)enfunf!  nic^t  pretext,  ^at  ber  ^immel  oft  geraten  (Sch.).  Die 
2Bett  ifl  ttoUfommen  iiberaK,  wo  ber  9)ienfc^  nic^t  :^tnfommt  mit  feiner  Dual  (id.). 
Detin  eBen  too  SSegrife  fe^len,  ba  fleUt  ein  Sort  pr  rec^ten  3ett  ftc^  ein  (F.  1995-6). 
^ein  SBajfer  ijl  ju  |aben,  jvo^in  man  ftc^  auc^  tuenlfe* 

«.  The  demonstratives  ba>  ba^tn,  ba^er  in  the  local  clause  are  now 
archaic.  Do  not  confound  the  relative  clauses  and  indirect  questions  with 
the  local  clauses  which  generally  refer  to  an  adverb. 

The  potential  subjunctive  may  stand  in  them. 

Clauses  of  Manner  and  Cause. 

332.  Modal  clauses  ex-press  an  accompanying  circumstance 
and  are  therefore  related  to  contemporaneous  clauses.  Con- 
junctions: intern,  tag  nic^t,  o^ne  tag,  without,  intern  nic|t,  ftatt  or 
anftatt  tag,  instead  of.  Ex.:  !5^er  Skitter  ging  fort,  intern  er  auf  ten 
©egner  einen  ijeradjtlic^en  ^M  marf.  3(^  Hn  nie  in  Sonton,  tag  ic^ 
ni(^t  ta^  SJlufeum  h\u6^k  (subj.). 

1.  They  may  have  the  potential  subjunctive.  But  these  clauses  occur 
more  frequently  in  the  form  of  participial  and  infinitive  clauses  with 


142       GENERAL   SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE   SENTENCES.        [333- 

„o^ne  ju,«  „anjlatt  ju«  :  5U^$aft,  anjlatt  ju  em^jfangcn,  mu^te  xa|Icn.    ©r  ritt  fort 
o^ne  ftd^  umjufe^en. 

333.  Comparative  clauses  denote  manner,  degree,  and 
measure.  Conjunctions:  mtc,  aU,  "  as,"  "  than  "  with  the  corre- 
sponding fo,  alfo,  ebenfo  (=  so)  in  the  main  clause.  After  the 
comparative  aU,  tenn,  treCer,  "than."  Other  forms:  gleidjmie  — 
fo ;  fo  n?ie  —  fo ;  just  as  —  as,  so.  S?ie  denotes  rather  manner 
and  quality,  aU  the  degree  and  quantity.  T\lien  both  clauses 
have  the  same  predicate,  contraction  is  common.  Then  ane 
denotes  likeness,  al5  identity. 

Ex. :  3c^  finge  n)ie  ber  SJogel  ftngt  (G.).  'Danfet  ®ott  fo  warm  aU  i(|  fiir  biefen 
2;runf  eud^  banfe  (id.).  SBie  bu  mir  («tl,mtl"  understood), fo  ici^  bir  (Prov.).  !Du 
bijl  mir  nic^ta  me^r  ala  fein  <3o^n  (Sch.).  2)er  trage  ®ang  be^  ^riege^  :^at  bcm 
^onig  ebeni'oijiel  (5d)aben  gct^an  aia  er  ben  Diebellen  SBorteil  brac^te  (id.),  ^atte  ft^ 
ein  9(JanjIctn  angemajl't  al«  toie  ber  'Doftor  Sutler  (F.  2129-30)  {<xU  n?ic  is  collo- 
quial). „2Bie  ein  9iitter,"  "  like  a  knight " ;  „ala  (ein)  Stitter,"  "as  a  knight." 
<Sein  ®Iu(f  war  groper  (di  man  berec^net  ^atte  (Sch.).  ©ine^  |)auiJtea  (by  one 
head)  langer  benn  attca  S5oIf  (B.),    SBebcr  is  veiy  rare. 

1.  Specially  to  be  noticed  are  the  clauses  with  ali  ob,  oI^tDenn,  gener- 
ally followed  by  the  potential  or  unreal  subjunctive.  For  foenn  +  de- 
pendent order  occurs  also  the  inverted  without  tr>enn.  Ex.:  3br  eilet  \a,  <x\i 
wenn  ibr  i^litgel  ^attet  (Le.).  (Bu(!^e  bie  SBiJTenfcbaft,  ala  njurbeft  ewig  bu  bier  fein; 
Sugcnb,  aU  ^ielte  ber  Stob  bic^  fd^on  am  iMubenben  ^aar  (He.).  But  the  indica- 
tive is  possible :  Unb  e^  tuattct  unb  fiebet  unb  braufet  unb  jifd^t  wie  roenn  SBaffer 
mit  Seuer  ji^  mengt  (Sch.). 

2.  2)enn  is  preferable  after  a  comparative  when  several  „<x\i"  occur. 
SEBic  is  colloquial.  S^  fragt  ficb  ob  iBeffing  grower  aU  2)ic^ter  benn  al^  3)ienfd^ 
gewefen  fei.  S'Jicbt  in  the  clause  after  ala  is  no  longer  good  usage,  though 
common  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  Lessing  has  it  very  frequently. 
3d^  lebtc  fo  eingejogen,  ol^  \6)  in  9)?eipen  nid)t  gelebt  ^atte  (Le.). 

a.  SSl\6:)t%  rcenigcr  aU  means  "anything  but,"  literally  "nothing  less  than  that,"  gen- 
erally felt  by  English  speakers  as  meaning  "  nothing  but,"  e.  g.,  fitter  id)  tarf  facjen,  ba^ 
biefe  ©inric^tung  ber  gafeel  nit^tg  iDcntger  aU  notipenblg  tft,  i.  e.,  that  this  arrangement  of 
the  plot  is  anything  but  necessary  (Le.).  In  ,,nl(I)t§  al§"  =  "  nothing  but,"  as  after  all 
negative  pronouns,  „ntemanb  aU  bu"  =  nobody  but  you,  aU  has  exclusive  force,  = 
♦'but.'* 

3.  Other  correlatives  are  fo  cincr  —  wic;  ber  namlidbe  —  wie;  berfelbe  — 
tt>ie;  fol^-/  )o  +  positive  adjective  —  mt  (quality)  and  aid  (degree);  after 


336]         GENERAL   SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE   SENTENCES.         143 

in,  aUin  +  positive  and  after  etn  anberer  stand  aU  +  ba§  or  mm,  aU  and 
infinitive,  e.g.,  (£r  bcnft  ju  ebel,  a\^  ba^  er  fo  ttroa^  i>on  m\^  emarten  fonntc. 
(£r  i|l  ber  nciniUc^e  wie  er  immer  war.  (Sure  SSerfo^nung  toax  etn  mnxQ  ju  [c^nell, 
aU  t)a^  fte  bauer^aft  ^atte  fein  foEen  (G.). 

Notice  the  potential  subjunctive  after  „aU  ha^." 

334.  Under  this  head  comes  really  the  proportional  clause, 
which  expresses  the  proportion  of  the  decrease  or  increase  of 
what  is  asserted  in  the  main  clause.  The  conjunctions  are 
the  following  correlatives  :  je  —  tefto,  urn  fo  (or  urn  tefto,  rarely) ; 
it  —  je,  =  the  —  the;  je  ttac^bem  (or  nac^rem  or  mie,  rarely), 
according  as.  If  the  main  clause  stand  first,  its  correlative 
is  dispensable. 

Ex. :  3e  me^r  ber  S5orrat  fc^molj»  beflo  fd^rec!li(^er  tt)uc^^  ber  hunger  (Sch.). 
3e  Icinger,  ie  Ueber  (Prov.).  3e  mel)r  er  f^at,  je  mc^r  er  idIII.  (3e)  nac^beni  einer 
ringt,  nad)bem  i^m  gelingt  (G.),  "The  success  depends  upon  the  effort." 

1.  3e  =  ever  ;  bcflo,  "  on  that  account,"  "  hence,"  see  442,  a.  Notice 
the  dependent  order  in  the  first,  the  inverted  generally  in  the  second. 

335.  Consecutive  clauses  express  the  result  or  effect  of  the 
predicate  of  the  main  clause.  Conjunctions:  t)a§  (fota^),  that; 
in  the  main  clause,  if  any  correlative,  fo,  fo  fe^r,  fcergej^alt,  terart, 
fol(^.  Ex. :  (So  lueraBfd^eut  ift  W  3:vrannei',  ta§  fte  fein  Serf^eug 
fintet  (Sch.).  Sr  f6(ug,  t)a§  taut  ter  2BaIo  erflang  unt)  alle^  Sifen  in 
©tiicfen  fprang  (Uh.). 

1  The  result  may  also  be  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  main  clause  or 
of  an  infinitive  clause:  T)o<i)  iibernat)m^  id)  gem  noc^  ei'nmal  aHe  ^la^t,  fo  lith 
tt)ar  mir  ha'^  ^inb  (F.  3128-4).  3c^  bin  lu  alt,  urn  nur  ju  fpielen,  ju  iung  urn  o^ne 
Sunfc^  ju  fein  .(P.  1546-7). 

2.  Mark  the  potsntiiil  and  unreal  subjunctives  of  the  preterit  and  plu- 
perfect which  may  stand  in  these  clauses  :  ©ermeint  S^r  mic^  fo  jung  unb 
fd>n)a(^,  ba§  i^  mit  Sfiiefen  ftritte?  (Uh.).  3)a0  9)ferb  tear  fo  la^m,ba§  roix  fc^netter 
ju  i5u§  l)eim  gefommen  twciren. 

336.  Restrictive  clauses  limit  the  value  and  scope  of  the 
statement  of  the  predicate  and  border  closely  upon  the  con- 
ditional and  comparative  clauses.    Conjunctions:  nur  ta§,  only 


144        GENERAL  SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE  SENTENCES.        [337- 

(that),  auper  bag,  except  that,  in  fo  fern  (aU),  hjofern,  in  tok,  fern, 
in  fo  or  in  mie  n?ett,  in  as  far  as,  in  as  much  as.  The  negative 
force  is  given  also  by  the  subjunctive  and  the  normal  order 
with  the  adverb  tenn  or  by  e^  fei  ^enn,  e5  ware  tenn,  taf,  which  is 
now  more  common. 

Ex. :  SSir  warcn  gar  nic^t  fo  iibel  bran,  nur  ba^  mx  nic^ta  ju  trinfen  fatten,  We 
were  not  at  all  so  badly  off,  only  ...  3n  fo  fern  nun  biefe  SSefen  ^orper  finb, 
fc^ilbert  bie  ^c(\it  auc^  Jtbrper  (Le.).  (£r  entfernte  fic^  ntemal^  mit,  er  faijt'  ed 
i^r  benn  (H.  and  D.,  IV.  42-3).  3(^  laffe  bid^  nic^t,  bu  fegne)!  mic^  benn  (unless 
thou  bless  me)  (B.).  fftu^Q  (gebtnfe  ic^  mic^  ju  ijer^altcn);  e^  fei  benn,  ba^ 
(unless)  er  ft(^  an  meincr  (£^rc  ober  meinen  ©iitern  sergreife  (Sch.). 

1.  This  is  a  very  old  construction,  quite  common  in  M,  H.  G.  The 
negative  force  lies  not  in  benn,  but  in  tbe  lost  ne  +  the  potential  or  con- 
cessive subjunctive.  2)enn  <  M.  H.  G.  danne,  is  unessential.  Compare 
M.  H.  G.  deji  lip  wil  ich  verliesen,  si  en  werde  mtn  wip  —  my  life  will  I 
lose,  (she  become  not  my  wife)  unless  she,  etc.  Swaz  lebete  in  dem  walde 
e^  entrunne  danne  halde,  das  was  zeJiant  tot,  =  Sa^  im  Salbe  letuc,  ba^  wax 
auf  bcr  (Btcttc  tot,  c^  fei  benn  ba§  c^  balb  ba»on  lief  or  gelaufen  ware  (quoted  by 
Paul).  Ne  disappeared  as  early  as  late  M.  H.  G.,  particularly  after  a 
negative  main  clause.  It  is  left  in  nur  <  ne  waere  =  (e^)  toare  nit^t  bap. 
See  Paul's  M.  H.G.  gram.,  §  335-40. 

337.  Causal  clauses  denote  the  cause,  reason,  and  means. 
Conjunctions:  ba,  since,  weil,  because,  inrem  =  by  -}-  present 
participle  in  Eng.  Correlatives,  if  any:  ba'rum,  ta'ber,  fo,  Ce^balb 
etc.  X^a'tur(^  ba§,  ta'mit  ta§ .  express  rather  the  instniment. 
SBcil  expresses  the  material  cause;  ta  the  logical  reason;  „in^ 
tern"  is  a  weak  causal  and  borders  rather  closely  upon  the 
contemporaneous  „intem."  X^enn  -f  normal  order  expresses  a 
known  or  admitted  reason.     It  is  emphatic.     See  321. 

Ex. :  Da^  Sd^lepptau  (hawser)  jcrrt§,  »eil  ber  (S(^Iej)pbampfer  (tug)  ju  fd)ncfl 
anjog.  SJZit  bent  bejlen  2BiUen  leiflenwir  fo  aenig,  weil  un^  taufenb  SBitlen  freujcn 
(G.).  Scben  anbern  ^u  fcbiden  i|l  betJer,  ba  i(^  fo  flein  bin  (G.).  2)ir  Miif)t  gewip 
ba^  fi^onfle  ®liicf  auf  Srben,  ba  bu  fo  fromm  unb  ^cifig  bi|l  (Sch.).  9fiid^elteu  wuptc 
jt(^  nur  baburc^  ju  ^elfen,  ba^  er  ben  Sciubfeligfeiten  ein  fiijleunige^  Snbc  mac^te  (Sch.). 

1.  9?un,  bieweil,  aEbiemeil,  mapeUf  ftntemal,  and  others,  are  rare  and 
archaic. 


339]        GENERAL   SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE   SENTENCES.         145 

3.  The  clauses  with  ba'burc^  ba§,  ba'mit  ba§  border  closely  upon  the 
substantive  clause.  2)a,  says  Becker,  denotes  the  real  and  logical  rea- 
son, Weil  the  logical  only  when  the  kind  of  reason  is  not  emphasi7,ed. 
SBeil  stands  in  a  clause  that  answers  the  question  as  to  the  reason. 

SBarum  wurbe  2Bat(en|letn  abgefejjt?    2Beil  man  i^n  fiir  einen  SUemter  ^ielt. 

338.  Final  clauses  express  intention  and  object.  Con- 
junctions: Dami't,  t>af,  "in  order  that."  %\x\  ta§,  unb  baf  are 
archaic.  In  the  main  clause  rarely  stand  tarum,  baju,  in  ter 
2lbfid)t,  gu  lent  ^mdt  (both  followed  by  la§)« 

Ex.:  2)arum  eben  lei^t  er  feinem,  bamit  er  flet^  ju  geBen  ^abc  (Le.).  !I)aju  ir'crb 
i^m  ber  S5er|lanb,  bap  er  im  innern  ^erjen  fpitret,  wasJ  er  erfc^ajft  mit  feincr  ^anb 
(Sch.).  (£l)re  SJater  unb  5Kutter,  auf  ba§  bir'd  wo^l  gel&e  unb  bu  lange  lei»efi  auf 
(£rben(B.). 

1.  The  reigning  mood  of  this  clause  is  the  subjunctive.  If  the  object 
is  represented  as  reached,  the  indicative  may  also  stand.  Um  ju  +  inf. 
forms  a  very  common  final  clause  ;  2)?an  lebt  nidjt  um  ju  effen/  fonbern  man  ipt 
um  ju  lebcn. 

339.  Concessive  clauses  make  a  concession  to  the  contra- 
diction existing  between  the  main  clause  and  the  result  ex- 
pected from  it  in  the  dependent  clause.  They  are  called  also 
adversative  causal  clauses.  Conjunctions  :  o&glei'dj  (ob  .  .  . 
9lei(^),  ob[d)o'n  (06  .  .  .  f^on),  obn?o|l  (ob  .  .  .  troU),  ob  and),  ob 
iwax,  mnn  audJ,  wenn  gleic^,  ob,  all  =  "  although."  The  main 
clause  may  contain  te'nnod),  to(^,  ntd;ti3tefto»eniger,  gIeid)n?o^I,  but 
fo  only  if  it  stands  second. 

Relative  clauses  with  indefinite  relative  pronouns  and 
adverbs,  mer  .  .  .  au(^  (immer,  nur),  trie  ♦  .  .  ancb,  fo  .  .  .  and) 
{nc&j) ;  inverted  clauses  and  those  with  the  normal  order,  con- 
taining the  adverbs  f^on,  glei^,  ^wax,  n?o|I,  freilicb,  noc^  have  also 
concessive  force. 

Ex. :  3|1 1^  gleic^  S^^ad)!,  fo  leuc^tet  unfer  tRt^t  (Sch.).  (Compare  Dbglcic^  ti 
9?a^t  tfl,  ob  e(3  gleic^  '^lladjt  i|l  .  .  .)  2Bai3  i^euer^njut  i^m  au6)  geraubt,  ein  fiiper 
Srofi  ijl  ifem  geHleBen  (id.).  9)?utig  fpra(|  er  },u  9flcinefen<3  bejlen  (in  favor  of  R.) 
fo  falfc^  auc^bicfer  befannt  war  (G.).  (£in  ®ott  tfl,  ein  ^eiliger  SBille  lebt,  rote  au6) 
ber  mcnfd)U(|e  tuanfe  (Sch).    ©rfiitt'  bason  bctn  ^erj,  fo  grog  e^  i)!  (F.  3453). 


146       GENERAL  SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE  SENTENCES.        [340- 

9)?an  fommt  m^  ®erebe,  wte  man  fic^  intmer  jlcHt  (G.).  2)em  S3ofeivid)t  wirb  ailed 
fd^iuer,  er  t^ue  wad  er  mil  (Holty).  3tt)ar  tx)ei§  ic^  »iel,  bod^  moc^t'  ic^  atted  tt)iffen 
(F.  601). 

1.  Mark  also  the  form  of  the  imperative  and  unb  +  inversion :  <Bn 
no(^  fo  bumm,  ed  gibt  boc^  jemanb(en),  ber  bi(|  fiir  n>eife  l;alt.  2)er  SJienfc^  i|^  frei 
Qefd)affen,  ill  frei,  unb  wiirbe  er  in  ^etten  getoren  (Sch.). 

2.  Mood :  if  a  fact  is  stated,  the  indicative  ;  if  a  supposition,  the  con- 
cessive and  unreal  subjunctive.     See  examples  above. 

3.  When  certain  parts  of  speech  are  common  to  both  clauses,  there 
may  be  contraction.     Dbwo^I  »on  ^o^em  ©tamm,  liebt  er  bad  S^olf  (Sch.). 

340.  Conditional  clauses  express  a  supposition  upon  which 
the  statement  of  the  main  clause  will  become  a  fact.  If  the 
supposition  is  real,  the  conditional  clause  has  the  indicative; 
if  only  fancied  or  merely  possible,  the  potential  subjunctive; 
if  it  implies  that  the  contrary  of  the  supposition  is  about  to 
happen  or  has  happened,  then  it  has  the  unreal  subjunctive 
of  the  imperfect  or  the  pluperfect.  Conjunctions  :  menn,  if; 
\a\ii,  im  gade  ra§,  in  case  that;  n?enn  anter^,  if  ...  at  all;  also 
ir»ofern,  fofern  (such  often  difficult  to  distinguish  from  a  conces- 
sive clause);  too,  fo  (rare).  The  main  clause  may  have  la,  tann, 
in  Cent  %a\it,  and  if  it  stand  second,  generally  begins  with  fo. 

Ex.:  9Benn  iti^  bie  23olfer  felbf!  kfrein,  ba  fann  bie  SBo'^Ifalrt  nic^t  gebei^n 
(Sch.).  SBenn  bu  aid  3)?ann  bie  ©ifTcnfc^aft  serme^rjl,  fo  fann  bein  <So^n  ju  ^p^^rem 
3tel  gelangen  (F.  1063).  Ser  miebe  nicbt,  menn  er^d  umge^en  fann,  bad  5luperjle 
(Sch.).    (So  bu  fampfefl  ritterlid^,  freut  bein  alter  ^attx  fid)  (Stolberg). 

1.  Other  forms  of  the  conditional  clause  are  the  inverted  order,  the 
imperative,  and  the  normal  order  with  benn  +  subjunctive  (=  if .  .  .  not, 
unless  ;  see  336, 1).  ^Sei  im  S3eft^e  unb  bu  iDO^nfi  im  9le(i)t  (Sch.),  Possession 
is  nine  points  of  the  law.  2)em  lickn  ®otte  mi^''  nidit  aud,  finb^fl  bu  i^n  auf 
bem  SBeg  (Sch.). 

2.  S[Bofern  nid^t,  auper  wenn,  ed  fei  benn  ha^,  if  not,  unless,  denote  an  ex- 
ception to  a  statement  true  in  general.  !Ber  SBotf  i)!  ^armlod,  au^er  menu  er 
|)un9er  ^at.     See  336,  1. 

3.  Sometimes  the  preterit  ind.  is  substituted  for  the  unreal  subjunc- 
tive in  the  dependent  or  in  the  main  clause  or  in  both.     Its  force  is 


343]  GENERAL  SYNTAX — WORD-ORDEE.  147 

assurance,  certainty.  Sraf  ein  MxU^  mein  Oeftc^t,  ad^,  fo  U1>V  i(^  ftc^er  nt^t 
(Gleim).  9«it  biefem  ^feil  burc^fc^og  tc^  (iu6),  mm  i^  mein  ikht^  ^inb  getroffen 
l^atte  (Sch.).  £)  ^^x\t  bu  tt>a^r  gewefen  unb  gerabe,  nie  Urn  e«  ba^in,  alle^  fliinbc 
anberiJ  (Sch.). 

4.  Contracted  and  abbreviated  forms :  entworfcn  Ho^  tjl'^  ein  gemetner 
%xt^d;  iJoUfii^rt  \]V^  ein  unflerHid^  Unternefcmen  (Sch.).  Sffienn  nic^t,  too  nic^t, 
tt)o  mogli^  are  very  common.  Sir  »erfu(i^ten  i^n  wo  moglic^  iu  beru^igen,  ttjenn 
ni(^t  ganj  ju  entferncn. 

For  the  tenses  see  also  275-280. 

WORD-ORDER. 

341.  We  distinguish  three  principal  word-orders  according 
to  the  position  of  subject  and  verb: 

1.  The  normal,  viz.,  subject  —  verb. 

2.  The  inverted,  viz.,  verb  —  subject. 

3.  The  dependent,  viz.,  verb  at  the  end. 

(By  "  verb  "  we  shall  understand  for  the  sake  of  brevity  the  personal  part  and  by 
"predicate"  the  non-personal  part  of  the  verb,  viz.,  participle  and  infinitive.) 

342.  The  normal  occurs  chiefly  in  main  sentences :  Xer 
2Bin^  m^t*  It  is  identical  with  the  dependent  order  if  there 
is  only  subject  and  verb  in  the  dependent  clause,  ^ie  Wix)^U 
ge^t,  ttjeil  ter  SCnnt)  m% 

343.  The  inverted  order  occurs  both  in  main  and  depend- 
ent clauses:  ®e^t  Me  mMt  ?  Se^t  ter  SCinD,  (fo)  ge^t  tie  m^k. 
It  occurs  : 

a.  In  a  question. 

b.  In  optative  and  imperative  sentences. 

c.  In  dependent  clauses,  mainly  conditional  and  after  aU  -|- 
subjunctive,  when  there  is  no  conjunction  like  mnn,  ob,  etc. 

d.  If  for  any  reason,  generally  a  rhetorical  one,  any  other 
word  but  the  subject,  or  if  a  whole  clause,  head  the  sentence. 

e.  For  impressiveness  the  verb  stands  first. 
Examples  with  adjuncts  (objects,  adverbs,  etc.)  added: 


148  GENERAL   SYXTAX — WORD-ORDER.  [343- 

a.  ©c^reiBt  ter  ^reunb  ?  33IeiBt  ber  l:icner  nii^t  lange  dVi^'^.  2Ca3 
f(^rei6t  iir  ter  3reunl>  ? 

But  when  the  inquiry  is  as  to  the  subject  the  normal  order  stands  of 
course.    2Ber  fc^rcibt  cinen  S3rie[?   2Ba^  ifl  bcr  langcn  S^iebc  furjer  ©inn?  (Sch.). 

h.  5)^bgc  nte  ter  3^ag  erf(^einen,  irenn  tes  raukn  ^rteges  iporten 
tiefe^  Pide  2;^al  ^ur(^to6en  (Sch.).  For  more  examples,  see 
284,  1,  2. 

But  the  inverted  order  is  not  required :  "Die  ^a)^\  ber  S:ro))fcn,  bie  cr  ^cgt, 
fei  curen  Jagen  jugelegt !  (F.  989-990). 

c.  SBifljl  tu  genau  erfa^ren  wa5  fic^  giemt,  fo  fragc  itur  bei  etlen 
f^rauen  an  (G.).  ^irt  man  jto  (=r  irgentmo)  gut  aufgencmmen, 
mu§  man  nid)t  gleic^  tt?ieter!ommcn  (Wolff).  (v£r)  (Strid)  trauf  ein 
©pange,  ^ett^  unt  9ling\  aU  waren'iJ  cben  ^ftjferling';  tanft' nicbt 
weniger  unb  nicfct  me^r,  aU  ob'^  ein  ^orb  »otI  9lujye  war'  (F.  2843-6). 

Notice  here  the  inversion  after  al^  alone,  but  dependent  order  after 
dU  oB.     See  340,  1 ;  also  F.  n22-25,  1962-3. 

But  for  emphasis  and  to  add  vividness,  the  normal  is  still  possible  : 
!Du  fle^ejl  flill,  cr  wartct  auf;  bu  fpric^jl  i^n  on,  er  jlrcbt  an  bir  !^inauf  (F.  1168-9). 
This  is  mere  parataxis. 

d,  tit  33otic^aft  W  tc^  njo^l,  attein  mtr  fe^Ittcr©Iaubc  (F.  765). 
(Smjl  {ft  ta^  Seben,  fetter  ift  tie  ^unfl  (Sch.).  "^{6^  t)at  mein  iperg 
betrogen  (id.).  SlJo  aber  ein  2la5  ift,  ta  »erfammcln  fid)  bie  2ltler  (B.). 
Xieine^  ®eifte5  ^ah"  x6^  einen  Jpau(^  ijerfpiirt  (Uh.).  See  also  F.  860- 
1, 1174-5,  1236.  iiberfe'^en  fann  (Ea^Iu^  bieS  ©emcilte  nid)t  ^^Un 
(Le.).  ©efc^rieben  fte^t:  „3m  Slnfang  mx  bag  2Bort"  (F.  1224). 
See  also  236,  3. 

1.  The  main  clause,  inserted  in  any  statement  or  following  it,  has  in- 
version according  to  this  rule.  "Da^,  fprid}t  er,  ill  fcin  5lufent^alt,  xoai  forbcrt 
^immchn  (Sch.).  SIBie  |eib  i^r  gliicflid),  cbler  ®raf,  ^ub  er  soil  Slrglifl  an  (id.). 
For  emphasis  the  speaker  can  insert  a  clause  unin verted  :  2)enn,  \^  xoi\^ 
ii,  cr  ijl  ber  ©liter  bie  cr  Icreinjl  erbt,  wert  (H.  and  D.,  III.  53). 

2.  The  coordinating  conjunctions  aber,  allcin,  benn,  namlid^f  obcr,  fonbern, 
unb  standing  generally  at  the  head  of  the  sentence,  nny  adverb  with  the 
force  of  au  elliptical  sentence  (jwar,  ja,  etc.,  having  generally  a  comma 


345]  GEN^ERAL  SYNTAX— WORD-ORDER.  149 

after  them)  call  for  no  inversion.    After  cntweber  there  is  option.     Ex.: 

5lkr  tie  ^unfl  ^at  in  ben  neueren  Betten  ungleic^  weitere  Orenjen  er^alten  (Le.). 
Qroax  euer  S3art  ij!  fxau^,  boc^  ^ebt  i^r  nic^t  bie  9iiegel  (F.  671).  tJitrroa'Jjr !  ic^ 
bin  ber  einjige  (So|n  nur  (H.  and  D.,  IV.  91).  3a,  mir  ^at  c^  ber  ®eijl  gefagt 
(id.,  IV.  95).    2)enn  bie  3«anner  ftnb  ^eftig  (id.,  IV.  148). 

3.  When  the  dependent  clause  precedes,  the  main  clause  can  for  em- 
phasis and  very  frequently  colloquially  have  the  normal  order.     Ex. : 

|)attc  er  bie  Urfac^en  biefe^  allgemeinen  5(krglauben(3  an  <S^affperc^i3  ©c^on^eiten 
aucb  gefud^t,  er  wiirbe  fte  I6alb  gefunben  ^akn  (Le.). 

e.  ^at  bie  ^iJntgin  boc^  nidjt^  ijorau^  tier  bcm  gemeinen  ^Burcjerwetk 
(Sch.).  (Bk1:)tn  mie  ^elfen  boc^  ^mx  Wdnmv  gegen  einanber !  (H.  and 
D.,  IV.  229).     Generally  contains  bO(^. 

344.  The  dependent  order  occurs  only  in  dependent 
clauses.  The  clause  begins  with  a  relative  or  interrogative 
pronoun  which  may  be  preceded  by  a  preposition  ;  with  a 
relative  or  interrog.  adverb;  or  with  a  subordinating  conjunc- 
tion. Ex. :  2Benn  id)  nicfct  Sllexanber  mxt,  mbd)te  i(^  n?o^l  ^iogene^ 
fein*  3^  ntet)r  er  §at,  je  me^r  er  mitt  (Claudius).  80  ftolj  id)  bin, 
mu^  i(^  mir  felbjl  gefte()tt  j  bergleid^en  ^ab'  ic^  nie  gefe^n  (G.).  2Cle 
foldje  tiefgeprdgte  Silber  coc^  gu  S^^iten  in  un^  fd)Iafen  fonnen,  bi^  ein 
SSort,  ein  2aut  fie  luedt  (Le.).     See  also  F.  2015-18,  2062. 

345.  The  dependent  order  does  not  occur  in  main  clauses, 
but  it  is  not  the  only  order  of  the  dependent  clause. 

1.  The  verb  precedes  two  infinitives.  One  may  be  the  past 
participle  of  a  modal  auxiliary.  Ex.:  ^ann  icfc  »er9ejyen,ttjie^^ 
l^atte  fommen  fonnen?  (Sch.).  X;ap  ein  SJZenfc^  bo(^  einen  SJ^enfc^en 
fo  »erlegen  fott  mad)en  fonnen!  (Le.). 

a.  But  in  this  case  and  in  other  compound  tenses  the  **  verb  "  (i.  e.,  the 
personal  part)  may  also  stand  between  the  participle  and  the  other  aux- 
iliary or  the  infinitive,  e.g.,  Weil  ber  ^aufmann  bag  ^au^  fott  gefauft  l^aben  or 
gefauft  fott  f)aUn  (in  poetry),     ©efauft  "^aben  fott  is  the  common  order. 

2.  The  normal  order  may  stand: 

1.   In  dependent  clauses  containing  indirect  speech.     Sr 


150  GENERAL   SYNTAX — WORD-ORDER.  [346- 

glaubt,  (S^a!|>ere  ^abe  «Brutu^  gum  ^elten  t'c^  ©tiicfe^  madden  t^otlen 
(Le.). 

2.  In  a  second  or  third  dependent  clause.     See  358. 

3.  In  certain  clauses  with  negative  force  containing  an 
enclitic  „tenn":  e^  fei  tenn  ta§  +  dependent  order.     See  336. 

4.  In  substantive  clauses :  ®ott  n?ei§,  id)  bin  nidjt  fdjult  (Le.). 
This  is  mere  parataxis  without  conjunction. 

346.  The  auxiliaries  |aben  and  fein  are  also  frequently 
dropped  in  dependent  clauses  to  avoid  an  accumulation  of 
verbal  forms,  both  in  prose  and  poetry.  Lessing,  Goethe, 
and  Klopstock,  especially  the  first,  drop  the  auxiliary  very 
freely  and  skillfully. 

Ex.:  2Bie  unbegretflic^  id)  »on  i()m  kletMgt  trorten  (supply  Inn 
here  or  before  beleitigt)  vint  noc^  mvlt  (Le.).  SJJbgUd),  taj  ter 
5Sater  bie  2:9ranne'i  te^  e  i  n  e  n  Slings  ni(^t  langer  in  feinem  ^aufe 
(supply  ^at)  tul^en  luollen  (id.). 

347.  The  dependent  order  in  main  clauses  is  archaic  and  poetic. 

Ex.  :    ©iegfrieb  ben  jammer  ido^I  fci^roingen  funnt  (dialect  for  fonnte)  (Uh.). 
Ura^ne,  ®ro§ntutter,  9)iutter  unb  ^inb  in  bumpfcr  ©tube  beifammen  finb  (Schwab). 

348.  1.  The  inverted  order  in  the  conditional  clause  and  in  a  main  clause  for  the 
sake  of  impressiveness  has  sprung  from  the  order  of  the  question.  Compare,  for 
instance :  1.  3ft  ber  greunb  treu  y  (question).  2.  3ft  ter  greunb  trcu  ?  (question),  ©ut, 
fo  irirb  er  mir  beifte^en.  3.  3it  i'cr  greunb  treu  (conditional  clause),  fo  wirb  er  mir  beifte^en. 
4.    3P  mir  ber  gveunb  boi)  treu  geblieben  !  (impressive  inversion). 

2.  The  main  clause  has  inversion  when  the  dependent  clause  precedes,  because  it 
generally  begins  with  an  adverb  like  fo,  tann,  etc.  @e^p  bu  nic^t,  \o  tl>ufl  bu  Umc^t. 
Without  fc,  the  inversion  really  ceases.  Hence  we  say,  the  normal  order  may  still 
stand  for  emphasis.  But  fc,  etc.,  were  so  frequent  that  inversion  became  the  rule. 
Inversion  is  therefore  limited  originally  to  the  question  and  to  the  choice  of  placing 
the  emphatic  part  of  the  sentence  where  it  will  be  most  prominent. 

349.  1.  The  dependent  order  was  in  O.  H.  G.  by  no  means  limited  to  the  dependent 
clause.  Toward  the  10th  century  it  begins  to  become  rarer  in  the  main  clause.  In 
early  M.  H.  G.  it  became  limited  to  the  dependent  clause,  so  that  now  we  may  justly 
call  it  the  "  dependent-clause  order." 

2.  The  verb  at  the  end  is,  no  doubt,  a  great  blemish  of  Grcrman  style— second  only 
to  the  separation  of  the  little  prefix  of  separable  compound  verbs,  which  may  turn  up 
after  many  intervening  parts  at  the  close  of  the  sentence.  According  to  Delbrtlck,  the 
dependent  order— subject,  object,  verb— was  the  primitive  one,  still  in  force  in  Latin. 


352]  GENERAL   SYi^TAX — WORD-ORDER.  151 

General  Rules  for  the  Ordee  of  other  Parts  of  the 
Sentence  besides  Subject  and  Verb. 

Position  of  the  Predicate. 

350.  The  predicate,  be  it  an  adjective,  a  substantive,  par- 
ticiple, infinitive,  or  separable  prefix  of  a  compound  verb  or 
the  first  element  of  a  loosely  compounded  verb,  stands  at  the 
end  of  a  main  clause  in  a  simple  tense.  The  adjuncts  of  the 
predicate,  such  as  objects,  adverbs,  stand  between  verb  and 
predicate. 

Ex.:  Xtr  (Sentte  muf  fd)eibcn,fcer  (Sommer  ifi  ^in  (Sch.).  3^^  f^if 
ein  50^eifter  (id.).  Sr  ^at  oerlor^ne  5Borte  nur  gefproc^en  (id.),  ^ein 
@d>ilt  ftng  t)tefen  ^ortftretc^  auf  (id.).  (Straflofe  ^re(^^eit  fpric^t  ten 
@itten  ipo^n  (id.).    ®eftern  fant  cin  SBagner^^Sonce'rt  ftatt* 

In  the  dependent  clause  only  the  verb  changes  position,  subject  and 
predicate  remain  as  in  the  main  clause,  and  the  adjuncts  stand  between 
them.  For  instance :  ®Iaubt  ba^  nic^t !  3^r  werbet  biefe^  ^ampfesj  (£nbe  nint^ 
mer  erMicfen  (Sch.),  becomes  ®Iaubt  nic^t,  ba§  i:^r  biefe^  ^am^fei^  ©nbe  je  erblitfen 
luerbet. 

351.  In  the  compound  tense  the  separable  prefix  immedi- 
ately precedes  the  participle,  be  it  in  a  main  or  in  a  dependent 
clause.  2^rei§ig  3a^re  ^abtn  iviv  jufammen  au^gelebt  unt  au^ge^alten 
(Sch.).    Xie  S^olera  will  (is  about  to)  ii'ber^anr  ne^men*  See  137. 

Order  of  Objects  and  Cases. 

352.  a.  Case  of  a  person  before  a  case  of  the  thing.  3l6er 
awc^  nod)  t)ann  ♦  ♦  ,  ful)r  Uv  ^aifer  fort,  ben  <Stanben  ben  grieben  ju 
getgen  (Sch.). 

b.  Case  of  a  pronoun  before  a  noun.  5!)^ an  Beftimmte  fie 
(them)  bent  aHgemeinen  Unn?illen  gum  Op'm  (Sch.). 

c.  The  dative  stands  before  the  accusative;  if  both  are  per- 
sons, the  accusative  may  stand  before  the  dative.  Sr  \ttb\t 
l)atte  rem  Xienfte  biefe^  ipaufe^  feine  crftcn  Sfl^sucie  gewi^met  (Sch.). 


152  GEI^ERAL   SYKTAX — WORD-ORDER.  [353- 

d.  The  accusative-object  stands  before  remoter  objects,  a 
genitive  or  a  preposition  +  case.  But  see  also  a.  ?[lian  m5(^te 
fagen,  ^Soltaire  ^abe  ein  ®emi?I  i?on  ter  S5i(^tig!eit  tiefer  ^crfbnlid)feit 
o^t^ahi  (H.  Grimm),  tit  ©d^iilcrin  f(^ne&  einen  5luffa^  iiber  ten 
SBinter. 

e.  As  to  pronouns,  ftd)  stands  generally  before  ti,  and  both 
before  every  other  pronoun.  The  personal  pronoun  stands 
before  the  demonstrative.  The  personal  and  fid)  may  stand 
before  the  subject,  if  it  be  a  noun,  in  the  inverted  and  depend- 
ent orders.  (Er  ^OiX  fid)  e^  angeeii^net.  .^rummau  (a  proper  name) 
nci^ert  pdj  i^m  (Sch.).  2Ber  tarf  p(^  fo  etma^  eriauben  ?  3fnfm  ten 
2Seg  gu  tern  bomifdsen  3;^rone  gu  ijer[d?Ue§en,  ergrtff  man  tie  SBaffen 
fc^on  unter  iDJatt^ia^  (Sch.).  2Ba5  i^m  tie  i)ergri?§erte  ?D^ac^t  ter 
@tante  (estates)  an  (Setbftt^atigfeit  noc^  iibrtg  Iie§,  Meltcn  feine 
3(gnatett  (relatives)  unter  einem  f^impflid^en  3'^^^i^9  (id.),  .^at  fid) 
tie  glotte  ergeben  ?    ^afl  tu  e5  i^m  roieter  gegeben  ? 

1.  c  also  includes  the  personal  pronouns :  SBie  fonnt'  id)  c^ne  Seugen  inic& 
i^r  nal^n  ?  (Sch.).     The  rules  a,  c,  d  are  by  no  means  strict. 

353.  For  the  position  of  the  adjective,  see  ihe  use  of  the 
adjective,  194,  212.  Notice  that  what  depends  upon  an 
adjective,  participle,  or  infinitive  precedes  these.  X^ie  iEng< 
Idnter  ftnt  ikem  ^errfc^er^aufe  ergekn.  3""^  @ekn  geboren,  gum 
©djauen  Bejledt,  tern  3:urme  gefc^moren,  gefdtit  mir  tie  2GcIt  (G.). 
5Sir  kten  i^n,  ten  53rief  auf  tie  ^oft  gu  geben.  (S^affpcre^^  SCerfe 
ftnb)  !eine  2:ugentle^ren,  in  ^apitel  gebrac^t  unt  turd)  retente  Syempel 
erldutert  (Le.). 

Position  of  Adverbs. 

354.  In  general,  adverbs  stand  before  the  words  they 
qualify.  The  modal  adverbs  nid)t,  ettra,  jwar,  fc&on,  n?o(,  etc., 
and  the  adverbs  of  time  immer,  fc^on,  je^t,  nie,  nimmcr  stand 
generally  immediately  before  the  predicate  or  in  place  of  it  if 
there  is  none.    Xie^  ^iltnip  ift  hjaubemt  fdjbn  (Mozart's  3^ut>er^ 


358]  GEKERAL  SYNTAX — WORD-ORDER.  153 

flbte)  Sin  fe^r  ^eftiger  ^uften  greift  fccn  ^ranfen  j^ar!  an,  !Da^ 
fd^mere  ^erj  tuirt  ntd)t  t)ur^  S3orte  leid^t  (Sch.).  ©c^on  tjtele  3;age 
fe^^  i(^  e^  fd)meigent>  an  (id.).  3ffc>  ^^it*^  euc^  tiO(^  me  eriannt  (B.). 
^aft  tu  i^n  noc^  ttid^t  befud^t  ?  (Notice  the  opposite  of  the  Eng- 
lish order  in  "  never  yet,"  "  not  yet.") 

355.  An  adverb  of  time  stands  before  one  of  place,  and 
both  before  one  of  manner.  Ex. :  35iete  33auern  tvaren  geftcm 
nac^  ttx  ®tatt  ju  SHarfte  gefal)ren.  2Cir  fa^ren  morgen  per  Sifenba^n 
nadj  9lul)olftabt.   S^  tan^t  ftd)  auf  tiefem  glatteit  gupoten  nid^t  fe^r  gut, 

1.  Of  several  adverbs  of  time  or  place  the  more  general  precede  the 
more  specific.  2Bir  reifen  morgen  frii^  urn  6  U^r  59  SJZinuten  al.  2)er  9>oItjtfl 
fant)  ben  Setrunfenen  auf  ber  ^a^rflra^e  m  Drede  Uegen. 

2.  Adverbs  of  time  precede  objects  when  these  are  nouns,  but  pro- 
nouns precede  all  adverbs.  2Bir  feiern  balb  ben  4ten  3uU,  ben  %a^  ber  Unat>- 
l^angtgfeit^erflarung.    2Bir  |ofen  i|n  morgen  auf  bem  S3a:^n^ofe  p  treffen, 

356.  Only  abtx,  namlii^,  jetoc^,  and  a  few  others,  can  sepa- 
rate subject  and  verb.  Ex. :  !Der  9li(^ter  aber  fprad)  (Le.).  Xic 
5^ac^tigall  jetoc^  ftngt  njunterfc^bn. 

357.  As  to  the  position  of  the  prepositions,  they,  with  very 
few  exceptions,  precede  the  noun  ;  when  they  follow  the  noun 
has  been  stated  under  Prepositions.  See,  for  instance,  303, 
7,  8,  10. 

Position  of  Clauses. 

358.  Dependent  clauses  have,  in  general,  the  positions  of 
those  parts  of  speech  and  of  the  sentence  which  they  repre- 
sent, i.  e.,  the  substantive  clause  standing  for  the  subject  or 
object  has  the  position  of  the  subject  or  the  object  in  the  sen- 
tence, etc.  No  special  rules  are  needed  for  them.  When 
there  are  several  dependent  clauses,  the  last  often  takes  for 
variety  the  normal  order  introduced  by  unfe. 

The  following  examples  show  well-placed  dependent  clauses  :  ^etn 
^aifer  fann,  xoai  unfer  i\t,  5jerf(^enfcn  (Sch.).    SBerficijcIt  I)ab'  id)'^  unb  »erhieft, 


154  GEN^EEAL  SYNTAX — WORD-ORDER.  [359- 

bag  er  mcin  gutcr  Gngel  ijl  (id.).  2)tc  (£^r\  bie  i^m  gcbiirt,  geb'  id^  i^m  gern;  ba^ 
0ied^t  bag  er  ftc^  nintmt,  ^emeigr'  tc^  i^m  (id.).  21U  ic^  jiinger  roar,  liebte  id)  nic^tg 
fo  fe^r,  ali  ffioma'nt  (novels)  (G.).  9li(^elieu  touBte  pc^  baburi^  ju  klfcn,  bag  ev 
ben  Seinbfeligfeiten  jn)ifc|)en  kiben  ein  fc^leunige^  (Snbe  w.id^U  (Scli.).  2)?cin  guter 
®cij^  ktt>a'^rte  mic^  ba»or,  bie  S'iatter  an  ben  S3ufen  nttr  ju  legen  (mir  before  bie 
Diatter  in  prose)  (id.).  S)er  ^JJIenfd^  begel)rt,  aik^  on  ftd^  gu  reiBen  (G.).  ii^enn 
bann  bie  rollenben  ilBogen  Dorbeigefauft  finb  unb  man  i)ort  fie  nur  nod^  in  ber 
fcrne, . . .  (for  unb  man  fie . . .  I^ort  (Auerbach). 

359.  The  rules  given  can  hardly  be  abstracted  from  poetry.  Even  in  prose  they 
will  be  found  frequently  infringed.  Rhythm,  rhyme,  and,  in  prose,  emphasis  control  ihe 
order  of  words  and  allow  of  much  choice.  Bat  students  translating  into  German  should 
adhere  to  the  rules  very  strictly.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  German  word-order  coin- 
cides very  nearly  with  the  old  English,  and  does  not  differ  after  all  so  much  from  the 
modem  English  word-order.  The  chief  points  of  difference  are  the  dependent  order, 
the  position  of  adverbs  of  time,  which  in  English  stand  generally  at  the  end,  and  the 
position  of  the  adjuncts  of  adjectives,  participles,  and  infinitives,  which  precede  the 
latter  instead  of  following  them  as  in  English. 

1.  The  word-order  required  by  certain  conjunctions  has  been  frequently  mentioned 
Vn  the  General  Syntax.    See,  for  instance,  320. 


361]  PHONOLOGY.  157 

A.    PHONOLOGY. 

Historical  Notes  on  the  Orthography. 

360.  The  letters  used  in  Germany  are  the  strongly  modified  Latin 
(Roman),  called  "  Gothic,"  in  vogue  all  over  Europe  during  the  later 
Middle  Ages,  when  printing  was  invented.  Germany  is  the  only  nation 
of  the  first  rank  which  retains  them,  and  for  this  reason  they  may  be 
justly  called  "  German  "  now.  In  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway  they 
are  also  still  in  use  to  a  certain  extent.  Italy,  France,  England  and 
Holland  abandoned  the  ugly  "  Gothic"  alphabet  very  early  and  returned 
to  the  Roman.  The  German  people  and  the  more  conservative  among 
the  scholars  make  the  retention  of  the  "  German  "  letters  a  matter  of 
patriotism. 

1.  An  edition  of  Schiller  in  Latin  type  ruined  a  Leipzig  publisher  twenty  years  ago. 
Yet  in  the  18th  century  much  literature  was  printed  in  Latin  type.  It  is  an  interesting 
fact,  stated  by  a  correspondent  of  the  ''''Evening  Post^''  of  New  York,  that  the  first 
German  book  published  in  America  was  printed  in  Latin  type  by  Benjamin  Franklin. 
It  was  a  sectarian  hymn-book,  "  Harfe  Zions.'''' 

2.  Nearly  all  German  scientific  books  are  printed  in  L.  type  to-day, 
because  all  scholars  and  civilized  nations  that  would  read  such  books  are 
accustomed  to  this  type.  Grimm  advocated  it  strongly  and  had  all  his 
books  printed  in  it.  Koberstein" s  Literaturgeschichte  ;  Bauer's,  Krause's, 
and  Wilmanns'  grammars  are  printed  in  it.  That  G.  type  was  not  ban- 
ished from  the  schools  by  the  new  "  Rules "  is  due  to  the  personal 
prejudice  of  the  Chancellor  of  the  German  Empire,  who,  not  long  ago, 
when  a  publisher  sent  to  him  a  book  in  Latin  type,  returned  it,  because 
it  was  more  troublesome  for  him  to  read  than  German  type. 

3.  German  children  therefore  still  continue  to  learn  to  read  eight  alphabets  and  to 
write  in  four,  viz.,  capital  and  small  Latin  script,  and  capital  and  small  German  script. 
In  the  Swiss  schools  German  type  and  script  have  just  been  given  up.  The  Latin  type 
and  script  seem  bound  to  prevail  in  Germany  before  very  long. 

361.  The  German  alphabet  represents  the  sounds  of  the  language 
more  adequately  than  the  English  does  the  English  sounds,  but  that  is 
not  saying  much.  In  no  living  language  do  the  signs  keep  step  with  the 
sounds  ;  they  are  always  behind,  nowhere  more  so  than  in  English.    But 


158  PHONOLOGY.  [362- 

in  German  also  are  several  signs  for  the  same  sound  and  one  sign  may 
have  to  stand  for  several  sounds.  For  instance,  c^  in  „ac^"  and  „\(i),"  n  in 
fiinf,  fanb,  fang,  denote  dijBferent  sounds  ;  ^,  \,  ff,  §  stand  for  the  same  sound  ; 
also  d  (short)  and  e.  The  long  vowel  is  indicated  by  doubling  in  <oaal,  SBoot, 
S3eet;  by  1^  in  2Ba^(,  2Bo^I,  2Be^,  and  not  at  all  in  S9uc^,  %n^,  ^ut.  And  yet, 
while  German  spells  more  phonetically  than  English,  its  standard  of 
spelling  is  as  uncertain  as  the  English,  if  not  more  so. 

1.  In  1876  an  orthographical  conference  was  called  at  Berlin,  which  was  to  discuss 
certain  modifications  and  propositions  aiming  at  uniformity,  laid  before  them  by 
R.  von  Raumer.  They  met  and  agreed  upon  certain  rules,  which  proved,  however, 
unacceptable  both  to  the  government  and  the  public. 

2.  In  1879  and  1880  the  various  governments  in  Germany  took  the 
matter  in  hand  and  prescribed  the  spelling  to  be  followed  in  their  schools. 
Thus  we  have  Prussian,  Bavarian,  Saxon,  Austrian  rules,  but  they  vary 
very  little.  The  kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg  alone,  with  true  Suabian 
tenacity,  still  clings  to  the  old  spellings.  Some  seven  millions  of  chil- 
dren, therefore,  now  have  to  learn  spelling  according  to  these  oflBcial 
rules.  All  new  school-books  must  be  spelt  according  to  them.  In- 
fluential journals  and  periodicals  have  taken  up  the  matter.  The 
excellent  new  edition  of  the  classics  now  appearing  in  Cottn's  '*  Bihliothek 
der  WelUUeratur"  is  spelt  accordingly.  While  these  "Rules"  leave 
much  to  be  wished  for,  yet  no  one  can  deny  that  some  of  them  are  a 
great  step  in  advance.  They  change  the  spelling  about  as  much  as  the 
five  rules  for  modified  spellings  of  the  American  Spelling  Reform  Asso- 
ciation would  change  English  spelling.  This  grammar  is  spelt  accord- 
ing to  the  rules.  We  shall  not  give  them,  since  they  can  be  so  easily 
obtained.    For  title  of  the  speller,  see  37. 

A  few  explanatory  remarks  are  given  on  certain  points. 
362.     Umlaut  signs. 

Of  the  numerous  signs  in  M.  H.  G.  only  two  are  left,  viz.,  e  after  and  " 
over  the  vowel ;  e  is  to  be  discarded  now  entirely  even  with  capitals,  after 
which  it  was  generally  put.  Umlaut  of  a  was  always  e,  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  e,  which  is  old  e.  In  N.  H.  G.  d  has  been  put  for  e  in  words 
whose  connection  with  words  containing  a  was  transparent.  fSaUx,  pi. 
SBdter,  but  ^Better;  alt,  alter,  but  (Sltern;  ^Umi  ?Wdnncr,  but  2)?enfd). 

1,  Dictionaries  and  encyclopedias  often  put  i,  21  after  ob,  W>,  which  is  very  annoy- 
ing. Unfortunately  none  of  the  umlauts  have  a  fixed  place  in  the  alphabet.  They 
Btand  generally  mixed  up  with  o,  o,  u. 


364]  PHONOLOGY.  159 

2.  a  was  ae,  a,  ce  in  M.  H.  G.  B  was  rarely  marked ;  o  was  oe^oe,  o  ; 
Uf  also  frequently  not  marked,  was  h  UC/  u,  U.  The  stroke  over  **  is  the 
remnant  of  o  over  n,  which  stood  for  the  diphthong  uo.  This  became  u 
in  N.  H.  G.  (see  488,  4),  hence  the  stroke. 

363.  On  the  marks  to  show  length. 

1.  M.  H.  G.  ie  >  i,  but  the  sign  te  of  the  old  diphthong  remained  and 
was  put  also  where  i  was  lengthened  as  in  kil  >  ^iel,  spil  >  ©J)iel. 

2.  ^  was  used  as  a  sign  of  length  for  several  reasons.  1,  It  became 
silent  as  in  je^n,  Sc^ma^er,  fe^en,  gebeilen.  It  stands  frequently  now,  where 
an  old  I  or  it)  was  dropped,  as  in  blii^en,  9iu|)e,  broken,  ^u^,  ©trot),  but  it 
is  not  pronounced.  The  preceding  vowel  was  long  originally,  or  became 
long  according  to  the  general  vowel-lengthening.  See  488,2.  2.  O.H.G. 
th  {=  Eng.  th)  passed  into  d.  This  sign  after  the  sound  had  changed 
appears  still  in  the  M.  G.  of  the  12th  and  in  the  succeeding  centuries, 
and  stands  not  only  for  b  but  also  for  t. 

3.  Since  the  15th  century  many  MSS.  have  regularly  t^  for  t,  and  this 
t^  was  used  indiscriminately  whether  the  vowel  after  or  before  it  was 
long  or  short,  when  printing  was  invented.  In  the  16th  and  17th  centu- 
ries t^  was  very  frequent.  Whether  the  breath-glide  (aspiration)  after  t 
was  then  pronounced,  and  if  so,  whether  it  was  appreciated  and  expressed 
by  ^,  is  a  question.  Paul  thinks  this  was  the  case.  It  would  then  be  a 
development  parallel  to  the  Eng.  t  in  tch  for  ch  {—  tsh).  Certain  it  is 
that  i)  after  t  was  no  "  dehnungs-t)  "  originally.  In  SBirt^  and  Z\)mm,  still 
in  vogue,  in  older  t^anne  (=  %amt),  t^ifd)  (=  Stfd)),  garl^en  {=  ®arten),  ^ 
could  not  be  "  dehnungs-^."  The  grammarians  of  the  17th  and  18th  cen- 
turies began  to  consider  it  a  dehnungs-^  and  tried  to  limit  its  use.  It  has 
lost  ground  with  every  coming  generation,  and  it  is  a  pity  that  the  offi- 
cial spelling  does  not  abolish  it  entirely. 

4.  The  doubling  of  vowels  is  the  oldest  method  to  show  length.  U,  t| 
and  the  umlauts  are  never  doubled. 

364.  The  use  of  initial  capitals. 

This  is  a  self  imposed  task  of  great  difficulty  and  „toi)fjerBre(^cn."  In 
the  MSS.  capitals  were  only  used  for  the  beginning  of  a  paragraph, 
sometimes  of  each  line  ;  so  also  in  the  early  printed  books,  in  which  the 
capitals  were  added  by  hand.  In  1529  Kolross  prescribed  capitals  for 
the  beginning  of  every  sentence,  for  proper  names,  for  ,,(5)ott"  and  „^txx" 


160  PHONOLOGY — THE  VOWELS.  [365- 

(Lord),  as  he  says  w®ott  ju  eeren  unb  reijerentj."  Soon  capitals  spread  over 
appellatives,  then  over  neuter  nouns,  and  then  over  the  abstract.  In  the 
1 7th  century  every  noun  and  any  part  of  speech  that  could  possibly  be 
construed  as  such  got  a  capital.  English  can  boast  of  some  superfluous 
capitals  in  the  names  of  the  months,  days  of  the  vreek,  points  of  the 
compass,  adjectives  derived  from  proper  nouns,  but  German  carries  off 
the  palm  among  the  languages  of  civilized  nations.  The  official  spelling 
reduces  capitals  considerably. 

365.  The  spelling  of  foreign  words  is  in  a  hopeless  muddle.  There 
is  no  system  and  no  rule.  All  that  can  be  said  is  that  there  is  a  prefer- 
ence of  one  spelling  over  the  other.  The  official  spelling  leaves  much 
liberty. 

ANALYSIS  AND  DESCRIPTION   OF  GERMAN  SOUNDS. 

366.  In  Part  I.  we  have  treated  of  the  alphabet  and  the  pronunciation  of  the  letters 
in  the  traditional  way.  But  this  way  is  quite  unscientific  and  is  barely  sufficient  to  start 
the  student  in  reading.  To  describe  the  sounds  of  a  language,  however,  is  not  an  easy 
matter.  If  the  instructor  were  acquainted  with  the  Bell-Sweet  system  as  presented  in 
Sweet's  "  Handbook  of  Phonetics,"  Oxford,  1877  and  in  Sweet's  "  Sound-Notation," 
the  matter  would  be  comparatively  easy  and  might  be  disposed  of  within  small  space. 
The  system  analyzes  the  vowels  as  well  as  the  consonants  according  to  the  position  of 
the  organs,  for  nothing  is  more  delusive  than  to  "  catch  "  vowels  by  the  sound  alone 
as  is  generally  done.  Sweet's  Hdbk.  gives  specimens  of  German,  Fionch,  English, 
Dutch,  Danish,  Icelandic,  and  Swedish,  transcribed  in  Latin  type,  and  if  the  student 
have  a  little  perseverance,  these  transcriptions  will  be  a  great  help  to  him  in  learning 
to  pronounce  any  of  the  above  languages. 

The  system  uses  none  of  those  big  Latin  tenns,  which  hide  a  multitude  of  inaccu- 
racies and  which  are  so  much  aflected  by  philologians. 

The  Vowels. 

367.  1.  The  most  tangible  quality  of  vowels  is  "  round- 
ness," produced  by  the  rounding  of  the  mouth-cavity  in  that 
region  where  the  vowel  is  made.  Pronounce  te  of  33iene,  roimd 
it  and  you  have  ii  of  Sii^ne.  Pronounce  e  of  5Beete,  and  round 
it  and  you  have  b  of  53bte.  Pronounce  a  of  Win,  round  it  and 
you  have  o  of  goiter.  In  o  is  very  little  Hp-rounding  (labializa- 
tion), but  mostly  cheek  or  inner  rounding. 

2.  The  second,  but  less  palpable  quality,  of  vowels  is  "  nar- 
rowness."   Its  opposite  is  "  wideness."    A  vowel  is  "narrow  " 


368]  PHONOLOGY — THE  VOWELS.  161 

by  the  convexity  of  the  tongue  caused  by  a  certain  tenseness 
in  it.  It  is  "wide "when  the  tongue  Ues  flat  and  relaxed. 
This  is  the  difference  between  t  of  ^iene  and  i  of  bin,  between 
long  it  of  ^}J^u^Ie  and  short  ii  of  3}?utler,  between  5  of  (So|Ie  and 
u  of  foil,  between  the  Eng.  vowels  of  "mare"  and  "man," 
"sought"  and  "sot." 

3.  The  third  important  element  in  producing  vowels  is  the 
position  of  the  tongue.  Two  positions  should  be  distin- 
guished, the  vertical  (height)  and  horizontal  (forwardness  or 
retraction).  In  each  we  distinguish  three  grades,  viz.,  "  high," 
"mid,"  and  "low"  ;  "back,"  "mixed,"  and  "front."  In  the 
vowels  of  „liegt,"  „2i(fct,"  „lixQt,"  „Suc!e"  the  tongue  is  "high"  and 
"  front " ;  in  the  vowels  of  „53uct)"  and  „^u&jt"  the  tongue  is 
"high"  but  "back."  The  table  on  next  page  shows  the  rela- 
tion of  the  German  vowels  to  each  other  and  also  to  the 
English  vowels. 

Key-words  for  Vowels. 

We  give  below  some  more  key-words,  some  hints  as  to  acquiring  the 
sounds  and  some  of  the  dialect-variations  in  pronunciation. 

High  Vowels. 

368.     1.  u  (high-back-narrow  round)  is  only  long.    Ex.: 

iput,  Zu6^,  3f^ul)e,  U^u.  Short  it  is  rare  in  S.  Gr.  Gutter,  ?^utter. 
Since  u  <  uo,  the  second  element  still  appears  in  S.  G.  as  eh 
(in  ®ak),  but  this  pronunciation  is  not  classical.  See  Hart's 
Goethe's  prose,  p.  40.  Identical  with  Eng.  oo  in  too,  boot. 
Its  length  is  either  unmarked  or  indicated  by  ^,  e.  g.,  Z.\x6>, 
^u^n,  t^un.     It  is  never  doubled. 

2.  u  (high-back-wide-round)  is  identical  with  Eng.  u  in 
"full,"  but  for  a  stronger  labilization  in  G.  Ex.:  5J? utter, 
ipintgcr,  ©pru^.  It  is  always  short.  The  u  pronounced  by  the 
extreme  N.  G.  is  rather  like  Eng.  u. 


162 


PHOE-QLOGY— THE  VOWELS. 


xn 
O 

t 

< 
W 

I— I 

o 


t  high-front 

bittett 

E.  bid 

2;§:§ 

1«    la 
^v^i  a 

p 

>5^ 

"Si 

-fa 

o 

1— t 

_^_^ 

p 

^3 

1 

k^    •l-H 

^  o 

o 

a 

.1-1    i- 

a.- 

a 

-I  ^ 

KS,^ 

p 

A 

i<fe 

'^H 

<a 

pM 

rial 

^         ^ 

-^  ^ 

"t 

-^.^ 

jaj 

O 

^         0) 

S^  '^ 

S       ^ 

"  -u 

-9 

•i-t 

^  -Ji +^ 

^1 
Is 

1— ( 

f3 

-♦J 

«d 

^  d 

2      fl 

O         © 

•§•1 

'^^zi 

2    QQ 

o  %. 

•IH 

o 

0 

a  « t: 

^  Si 
8 

"^ 

'd 

^ 

o 

s-s 

o 

^ 

o 

T3 

0^ 

0) 

•2 

a « 

a^ 

tf 

H 

H 

H 

P5 

a 

^-^ 

^  S: 

o 
Pi 

a 

? 

a 

Pi 

3 

a® 

O    O 

-a 

2 

a 

^ 
^ 

-^ 

1- 

-^ 

d       o 

4*1 

J 

4 

a« 

o 

3      H 

a   « 

^ 

p 

?3 

o 

o 

369]  PHONOLOGY — ^THE  VOWELS.  163 

3.  y  (high-front-narrow  round).  This  differs  from  u  by 
having  the  tongue-position  of  J,  that  is,  it  is  high-front,  instead 
of  high-back.  Ex.:  bitten,  gru§eti,  ?5u§e.  Long  all  over  Ger- 
many, but  diphthongal  in  S.  G.  „®ute"  =  „®uete,"  which,  like 
ue  for  n,  is  not  classical,  though  old.  M.  and  S.  G.  rounding 
of  ii  is  not  so  emphatic  as  N.  G.,  so  that  ix  sounds  more  like  i. 
Its  length  is  sometimes  shown  by  I),  oftener  unmarked.  Ex.: 
'maw,  ©tiit^Ie,  ^iite,  Jiic^er. 

4.  y  (high-front-wide-round).  This  is  N.  G.  short  ii  in 
^iitte,  ^^liiffe,  etc.  S.  G.  short  ii  is  only  slightly  rounded  and 
rather  the  short  of  their  long  narrow  ii,  and  therefore  itself 
narrow.  Extreme  N.  G.  ii  (in  Bremen,  Holstein,  etc.)  is  rather 
"mixed"  than  front.  The  first  ii  (N.  G.,  Hanover)  is  clas- 
sical. 

In  the  alphabet  the  u-umlauts  are  represented  by  u,  u^,  and  X),  as  in 
9)fu^c  (short),  g)ful)l  (long),  2«^rtc,  Wxit 

369.  1.  i  (high-front-narrow).  The  same  all  over  Ger- 
many. Ex. :  ©leg,  mir,  mv,  fielj.  Before  final  /  and  r  it  is 
shghtly  diphthongal,  showing  a  "  vanish  "  or  "  glide  "  before 
the  consonant.  35  kI,  »ier  are  not  fil,  fir,  but,  marking  the 
voice-glide  by  ^,  fi/^1,  fiy^r.  (See  Sweet's  Hdbk.,  p.  133.) 
Always  long.  It  is  represented  by  i,  i^,  te^,  but  generally  ie. 
Ex. :  ^ir,  i^r,  8ier,  ftic^It. 

2.  i  (high-front-wide).  Peculiar  to  Hanover  and  M.  G.,  as 
in  Mn,  SCinC,  ,^tnt).  The  strict  Low  Germans  of  Holstein, 
Hamburg,  Bremen  lower  this  i  toward  e  as  in  Eng.,  making  it 
e^,  so  that  their  ^inl)  sounds  much  like  kent.  In  S.  G.  neither 
I  occurs.  For  it  the  medium  long  narrow  i  is  substituted. 
Hence  a  S.  G.  pronunciation  of  Eng.  little  sounds  like  "  leetle," 
while  a  N.  G.  has  no  difficulty  with  it.  The  wide  t  of  Hanover 
and  M.  Germany  may  be  considered  classical.  Alwaj^s  short. 
It  is  represented  by  i  j  by  ie  in  ijierje^n,  ijierjig,  generally  also  in 
i}ietleid)t. 


164  phonology— the  vowels.  [370- 

Mid  Vowels. 

370.  1.  o  (mid-back-narrow-round).  The  regular  German 
6  of  So^n,  3:^ron,  ipof.  5  is  S.  G.,  as  in  l)offen,  2o^,  toc^.  5  is 
represented  by  c,  o^,  oo.    Ex.:  Wlonl,  too^ntn,  Soot. 

2.  0  (mid-back-wide-round),  o  of  M.  and  N.  G.,  where  S.  G. 
has  the  narrow  o.  Ex. :  (Sonne,  toll,  8toct.  This  and  b  are  per- 
haps the  most  difficult  vowels  for  Eng.  speakers.  Do  not 
lower  0  to  low-back,  making  it  like  Eng.  o  of  stock,  not.  Eng. 
o  is  equally  hard  for  N.  G.,  as  they  too  feel  that  the  effect  upon 
the  ear  is  much  the  same,  and  they  do  not  readily  appreciate 
the  difference  in  articulation. 

The  o-umlaut  has  very  different  shades  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. -  The  S.  G.  0,  whether  long  or  short,  is  narrow  (more  "close"). 
The  N.  G.  is  wide  (more  "  open  "). 

3.  Q  (mid-front-narrow  round)  is  both  long  and  short  in 
S.  G.  Long  0  in  hbic,  lofen,  ©oet^e  ;  short  b  in  Cbc^er,  ^bd^er, 
©tbcfe.     S.  G.  b  is  identical  with  Er.  eu  in  feu. 

4.  a  (mid-front-wide-round)  is  long  and  short  in  N.  G. 
Long  b  in  fcbbn,  ^b^e,  ?bivc;  short  b  in  ©otter,  ©potter,  (£tbrd>e. 
Do  not  confound  b  with  the  vowels  of  Eng.  bust,  bird.  The 
o-umlauts  are  represented  by  b  and  b^;  by  eu  in  French  words: 
Sonleu'r. 

Popularly  speaking,  S.  G.  6  is  closer  than  N.  G.  6.  To  acquire  the  sound  it  is  best 
to  start  with  S  as  in  „beete"  and  contract  the  mouth  corners,  in  which  the  rounding 
mainly  consists  in  this  vowel,  and  „ibk"  will  have  to  result.  In  n  the  rounding  is' 
mainly  in  the  lips  (labialization). 

In  Berlin  and  M.  G.  there  is  a  provincial  pronunciation  of  5  which  sounds  very  much 
like  6.    It  is  caused  by  imperfect  rounding  and  is  by  no  means  to  be  imitated. 

371.  1.  e  (mid-front  narrow)  is  easily  produced.  But  guard 
against  diphthongizing  and  widening  it  as  in  Eng.  may,  paid, 
pate.  Ex. :  33eet,  m/»b,  Zi)cc,  3'tet^.  Pure  Fr.  and  G.  naiTOw  e 
sounds  as  if  it  were  cut  off  short,  and  so  it  really  is  compared 
with  Eng.  iii  in  say.     Cigns  are  eb,  ee.     Always  long. 


372]  PHOI^OLOGY — THE  YOWELS.  165 

2.  e  (mid-front  wide)  is  the  common  short  e  in  Eng.  and  G. 
Ex.:  W.txi\6ii,  mm,  3^tt(cl). 

e  {e^)  is  slightly  lowered  toward  the  Eng.  vowels  of  man,  mare  ;  for 
instance,  M\i,  3l^re,  tt)are.  Complete  lowering  to  the  Eng.  vowel  is  pro- 
vincial. Signs,  c,  a,  a^ :  wenben,  ^oinbe,  9Jia^r.  Distinguish  therefore  ; 
(£^re— 5ll}re;  5D^eer  —  9K%. 

3.  eh  (mid-mixed-narrow)  is  unaccented  e  and  distinct  from 
"  long  "  and  "  short  "  e.  It  is  more  closely  related  to  the  Eng. 
"neutral"  vowels  of  "cut"  and  "cur"  than  to  any  German 
vowel.    Ex.:  trage,  glaube,  ©etrcin!,  gen^ettet. 

4.  a  (mid-back- wide).  This  has  various  sounds.  In  the 
city  of  Hanover  a  is  almost  fully  lowered  to  low-back.  It 
sounds  affected.  The  average  G.  a  is  almost  identical  with 
the  a  of  Eng.  father,  only  the  latter,  as  I  have  frequently  heard 
it,  has  the  slightest  trace  of  rounding. 

The  Austrian  long  a  has  a  very  "  deep  "  hollow  sound.  It  is  distinct||^ 
rounded  and  lowered,  and  is  either  low-mixed  or  low- front- wide-round. 

Signs,  a,  da,  a"^:  Zdo^i,  ©aal,  2Ba^l. 

Diphthongs. 

372.  There  are  three  of  these,  in  which  both  elements  are 
short  and  by  no  means  the  same  throughout  G-ermany. 

1.  The  first  is  represented  by  ei  and  ai  in  the  alphabet. 
The  value  of  the  signs  is  the  same  in  N.  G.  and  is  de'.  Its  first 
element  is  not  fully  retracted  and  is  exactly  identical  with  the 
first  element  of  Eng.  "long"  i.  In  S.  G.  the  second  element 
is  clearly  raised  and  even  narrowed  T,  and  is  better  repre- 
sented by  ai.  The  first  element  of  S.  G.  ai  is  clearly  mid-back. 
(See  Sweet's  Hdbk.,  p.  133.) 

2.  The  second  diphthong,  spelt  au,  is  composed  of  a  and  o 
(short  wide  o)  =  ao,  certainly  in  S.  G.  In  N.  G.  the  second 
element  is,  in  my  opinion,  mid-mixed  narrow-round,  i.e.,  the 
e  of  ©ak  rounded. 


166  PHONOLOGY— THE   COI^SOi^AXTS.  [373- 

3.  The  third  diphthong,  spelt  eu,  du,  rarely  oi,  is  oe'  {e  =:  e 
raised  towards  i)  in  N.  G.  and  oi  in  S.  G.,  e.  g.,  ^reute,  (Seldute. 
The  former  is  classical.  Any  approach  of  eu  towards  ei  is  pro- 
vincial and  not  elegant. 

373.  General  Remarks  on  the  Vowels.  There  are  thirteen 
vowels,  counting  either  N.  G.  or  S.  G.  b  and  not  counting  d 
lowered  mid-front.  There  are  no  "  low  "  vowels  in  G.  at  all 
as  in  Eng.  naught,  not,  snare,  err,  bag.  All  Eng.  long  vowels 
tend  toward  diphthongization,  as  in  say,  so,  saw.  The  German 
vowels  are  pure  single  sounds  and  seem  to  an  Eng.  ear  cut  off 
short,  ®ee,  fo.  Fr.  and  G.  vowels  are  alike  in  this  respect. 
They  are  strictly  narrow.  While  German  has  no  low-back- 
round  vowels  (saw,  sot),  the  front-rounding  is  very  emphatic, 
and  the  back-vowels  are  very  fully  back,  yielding  a  full 
sonorous  tone.     See  Sweet,  p.  132. 

The  Consonants. 
Open  Consonants. 

374.  1.  H  (throat-open-surd)  is  the  same  in  Eng.  and  G. 
It  has  always  the  articulation  of  the  following  vowel,  and 
might  be  called  therefore  a  surd  vowel.     Ex.:  l^jOii,  iput,  l)ier, 

Sign :  1^.    A  ^  not  initial  is  always  silent,  e.  g.,  ge'^cit/  gc^t,  f^un,  ^atl^e'ber. 

2.  R  (throat-open-sonant)  is  strongly  "  guttural,"  and  the 
provincial  N.  G.  pronunciation  of  r,  r^,  e.  g.,  in  0lcgen,  9legcr, 
S3dr,  ?^urd}e. 

For  the  regular,  classical  r  (divided)  see  377. 

375.  1.  kh  (back-open-surd)  is  the  surd  guttural  spirant 
after  back  vowels,  viz. ,  a,  a,  u,  u,  0,  6. 

Sign  :  d^.  Ex.:  Soc^,  Wiai^i,  wac^en,  33ud),  S3auc^.  This  is  the  Sc.  ch,  as 
in  loch.  After  a,  finally  and  before  a  consonant,  it  is  more  easily  acquired 
than  after  u  and  before  a  front  vowel.  In  S.  G.  dialect  this  is  the  only 
d) -sound,  the  front  (i^  being  unknown  there. 


376] 


PHONOLOGY — THE   CONSONANTS. 


167 


OR     - 

o 


3    O 


Hr]  2- 
O   §,03 
■^  &  05 


•d 


o 


li  B  » 

o 


OS     f* 


S  era 

02      M 


■ « 


g  a  E5-  g.  5,  ^  "2, 
cc   o-  ^.  C  ct>   g   g 

o  F*  21  ^  2    ^  ►-• 


i=  s  pj  ►*  B 


^      C  ^     HI  ^    2  rt- 

g  Q  B-  S    .  s-'^  »^ 

-e  §  <^  §:  ^  ^ -^ -r 

&  a  8  ^  ^  ^  -  -•• 

o  o  ;5  p*  5 


P  O  ^    'B 

CO  tB  ^      - 

P  CO  2 

0  ens  '^ 


o  .. 


S    0    g  CD 


?  B-  ^ 


a   o   ^ 


o 
p  S^   g 


CD 


o  "  s 

O   (TO     S 

ccq 

5  o 


CD    CD 


B   a    S.O   W^   §   & 


3 

-t     CO 
CD    p 


cT  p  T3 


P  P   5'   fD 
CD    2.    p    » 

"^   il     CO     ^, 


P"    "^     „     _     _     _ 

go     zB^S" 

~    S  »    CD     p' 

P-  «    2    l^j         (T? 

p;  cij  „ 


2.  **] 
s  3 


O     CD 


CD 

'     6 


^    a 

-  d 


g-   CD 
S     CD 


P   P 


li 


aw 

-*  T 

-     ia 
ox 


f§    P 

B  ?. 
p  m 
p  ^ 
p 


Di   CD 


CD     © 

d  o  2 

or?    r+  d 


2.  ^   5  B  d  p'^  P' 

P     25   P-   CD     CD     «>     1^ 


OQ 


>'  03    P 

SOP 

O    «•  S    CO 

1^  o  a 


d  "^  Jv 

p*  a  p  » 
fs    P    CD    2 


p 
1. 

Shut 

(Mutes,  Ex- 
plosivae).. 

& 

CD 

Pi 

d  : 

Itt 

or 

Surd. 

Sonant. 

Surd. 

a 

®    ^ 

Ob 

fag 

re 

Sonant. 

1                  1               1        S  ^  1    Surd. 

1 

s 

5^'  <-•      Sonant. 

1      c»  n.           1 

0         ct- 

a 

Surd. 

Ob          "^ 

««•„    Pep"" 

Sonant. 

d 

Surd. 

s' 

Sonant. 

Ob' 

Surd. 

a 

P 
P 

•           •  1  tSN       Sonant. 

ps- 

^ 

Surd. 

OR?  0  aS. 

Sonant. 

1  «  Hp      1                1                   1     Surd. 

P 

p^  p 

Sonant. 

B:h  i       Surd. 

a 

5! 

CD  ' 

>-* 

Sonant. 

i-r 

Surd. 

1 

•1  ^^'S 

^  _S<j      Sonant. 

168  PHOXOLOGY — THE   CONSONANTS.  [377- 

2.  jh  (front-open-surd)  is  sometimes  called  the  "  palatal- 
guttural."  It  stands  after  the  front  (palatal)  vowels  (i.  e.,  after 
all  vowels  except  a,  o,  u),  including  the  diphthongs,  ai  et,  eu  cin, 
and  always  in  the  suffix  -d^en.   Ex.:  3cfc,  eud^,  53ud?er,  mod>te,  feic^t. 

3.  The  sonants  corresponding  to  kh  smd  jh  are  gh  and  J; 
gh  stands  after  back  vowels,  j  after  front  vowels  and  initially. 
Ex. :  S}oge,  3«9f ;  S^^Q^f  ^Ciege,  liigen,  je,  jagen,  bbge.  But  gh  for 
g  (back-shut-sonant)  in  this  position,  though  very  common,  is 
not  classical. 

4.  In  tlie  alphabet  these  four  sounds  are  represented  as  follows  : 

kh  by  d)  after  back  vowels,  as  above ;  by  final  g  in  N.  Q.  after  back 
vowels,  not  counting  consonant  suffixes,  e.  g.,  ZaQ,  3u9#  bog)!,  tt>agt,  Sogb. 
See  (^g,  383. 

jh  by  c^  after  front  vowels  and  consonants  :  always  in  -(^en  no  matter 
what  precede.  Ex.:  2id)U  %uxiH,  ©torch,  SWabcben,  3)?amad)en,  leud)ten,  eud), 
5HoI(f),  5Wild^.  See  (fe<5,  383.  Also  by  g  final  or  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  in 
N.  G.  after  front  vowels  and  consonants,  not  counting  consonant  suffixes, 
©fiig,  (coUig,  liigft,  Uegt,  fegnen,  legft.  Also  by  initial  c^  in  foreign  words 
before  front  vowels,  e.  y.,  S^emi'e,  S^e'rub/  Sbiru'rg.  See  also  383.  Do 
not  confound  this  sound  with  ZT  +  j  (  =  y)  in  Eng.  huge,  hue. 

gh  by  medial  g  after  back  vowels,  e.  g.,  2age,  58cgcn.     See  sub  3. 

j  by  medial  g  after  front  vowels,  licgen,  3fuge,  giit'^ger.  But  this  sound 
of  g  is  provincial  even  in  N.  G,  and  the  "hard"  one  (—  shut,  stop)  is 
preferable. 

Regularly  by  )  initial.  In  N.  G.  a  strong  friction  (buzz)  is  heard  as  in 
Eng.  ye,  yew.  Ex.:  3^9cr,  iung.  S.  G.  j  is  a  mere  f,  ic  =  ie,,  jung  =  iung. 
The  latter  is,  no  doubt,  the  better  pronunciation.  I  have  heard  even  a 
regular  Eng.  j  (=  dzIC)  in  Bremen. 

5.  Sweet,  I  believe,  was  the  first  to  notice  a  slight  labial  element  after 
^  when  preceded  by  u  and  au,  indicated  by  w.  Hence  auc^  =  aokhw. 
See  378. 

377.  r  (point-open-sonant)  is  the  classical  r  of  M.  and 
S.  G.     Eng.  r  is  rather  "blade"  (dorsal)  than  "point." 

Popularly  speaking,  Eng.  r  is  "  rolled,"  G.  r  is  trilled.  The  effect 
upon  the  ear  is  very  different  in  the  two  r's,  though  their  articulation  is 
not  so  dissimilar.     See  Sweet,  §  109  and  p.  134. 


379]  PHOKOLOGY — THE   C0NS0NA:N^TS.  169 

378.  s,  z,  sh,  zh  (blade  and  blade-point)  form  a  group  of 
*'  sibilants  "  closely  related  to  each  other  and  to  Eng.  ih,  dh 
(point-teeth).  They  are  very  much  alike  in  Eng.  and  G.,  and 
no  description  is  needed  to  acquire  the  German.  (For  the 
different  varieties  see  Sievers'  Phonetik,  §  15,  2,  and  Sweet's 
Hdbk.,  p.  39.)  The  N.  G.  sounds  are  more  forward  than  the 
S.  G.  and  Eng.  Eng.  th  is  farthest  forward  (point-teeth),  then 
s,  and  then  sh,  on  the  palate.  In  th  the  current  of  air  passes 
over  the  "point"  (tip  of  the  tongue),  in  s  over  the  "blade" 
which  is  back  of  the  point,  and  in  sh  over  blade  and  point, 
presenting  more  tongue-surface.  In  the  G.  sounds  a  slight 
labialization  is  noticeable,  marked  by  Sweet  shw.  It  consists 
in  a  slight  contraction  of  the  mouth  corners. 

1.  s  (blade-surd)  is  represented  by  various  letters  of  the 
alphabet  (except  in  N.  G.),  viz.,  by  f,  e,  ^,  jf.  Ex.:  foil,  ipau^, 
glu§,  2Ba|fer. 

2.  z  (blade-sonant)  by  medial  and  initial  f,  peculiar  to  N.  G., 
as  in  lefen,  rafen.  Initial  f  begins  surd,  marked  by  Sweet  s^,  as 
in  Sf^ol,  but  ends  sonant.  The  standard  is  hardly  fixed  in 
favor  of  s  or  z.     See  391,  4. 

3.  sh  (blade-point-surd)  by  fd)  and  f  in  the  initial  ft,  fp  of 
S.  and  M.  G.,  as  in  Sd^Iange,  (Sd^infen,  luafd^en,  ®tatt,  ©pradse. 
The  first  word  would  be  =:  shwlaqe.  By  d)  in  foreign  words, 
(E^ampa'gner,  S^ifa'ne,     See  375,  4.     On  fl,  fp  also  389,  4. 

4.  zh  (blade-point-sonant)  occurs  only  in  foreign  words; 
by  g  in  Sparge,  ©age,  ^age,  Soge,  ®en^Darm.  =:  \  in  3ournaL  In 
io^ial  i  =  j  and  frequently  |  in  3ourna(  =  dzh,  Eng.  j.  Com- 
pare Eng.  azure,  crosier,  glacier. 

379.  bh  (lip-sonant)  is  the  S.  and  M.  G.  n?,  pronounced 
with  the  lips  only.  Blow  to  cool  which  would  be  surd  hh  and 
then  intonate  the  breath  (Sweet,  p.  41).  Do  not  confound 
with  Eng.  w,  in  which  the  back  of  the  tongue  is  raised  and 


170  PHON^OLOGY — THE   CONSONANTS.  [380- 

the  cheeks  are  narrowed.     S.  G.  tv  is  less  consonantal  than 
Eng.  w. 

380.  f  (lip-teeth-surd),  v  (Hp-teeth-sonant).  The  above 
sounds  are  "  labio-labial."  These  are  labio-dental.  The  pas- 
sage is  formed  by  the  lower  Up  and  upper  teeth. 

1.  f  is  represented  by  f,  tt,  as  in  ipafer,  faul,  ®cla»e,  ^reijel, 
91cr»,  ^ciffiy,  Seijfojej  by  p^  in  foreign  words  :  5^l)iIologic»  For 
pf  see  389,  1. 

2.  V  is  represented  by  »  in  N.  G.,  like  Eng.  and  Fr.  v  but 
less  energetically  buzzed.  Ex.:  3Bagen,  2bme,  @dJii?efter»  After 
f(^,  however,  m  is  often  made  labio-labial  in  N.  G.,  as  well  as 
in  M.  and  S.  G.  The  pronunciation  of  »  as  hh  or  v  be'^ween 
vowels  is  hardly  classical,  for  instance,  ^rcsel  =  frevel  or 
frebhel.     By  initial  ij  in  foreign  words,  as  in  ^Safa'nj,  55afe, 

381.  German  l,  t,  b,  n  differ  somewhat  from  the  Eng.  The  place  oi 
contact  (on  the  palate)  in  the  G.  sounds  is  much  more  forward  than  in 
the  Eng,  and  the  "  point "  of  the  tongue  is  used  in  the  former  while  the 
"  blade  "  is  used  in  the  latter.  Eng.  "  well  "  is  the  shibboleth  of  the 
German  speaking  Eng.,  and  G.  „tooU"  that  of  the  Englishman  speaking 
German.  The  difference  should  be  thoroughly  appreciated  by  all  who 
wish  to  speak  "  pure  "  German. 

1.  1  (point-divided)  is  represented  by  I,  as  in  Cic^t,  ^afl,  ttJOl)!, 
gaiter. 

German  tt  is  peculiarly  hard.  Practise  upon  SCBeHc,  2BaIIc,  ^aUt,  SGBoIIe. 
See  376. 

Shut  Consonants  or  Stops. 

382.  Next  comes  a  group  of  sounds  in  which  there  is  a 
complete  closure  of  the  mouth-channel.  When  the  closure 
is  opened  an  explosion  takes  place,  hence  then*  name  "explo- 
sivce."  "  Stops  "  is  a  less  pedantic  name.  When  the  closure 
is  far  back,  formed  by  the  root  of  the  tongue  and  the  soft 
palate,  we  get  the  back-stops  ^,  g,  called  also  not  so  well  "  gui- 


384]  PHONOLOGY — THE   CONSON^ANTS.  171 

tural "  and  ^^ palatal"  When  the  closure  is  forward,  formed 
by  the  point  of  the  tongue  and  the  teeth,  gams,  or  palate,  as 
the  case  may  be,  we  have  the  point-stops  /,  d,  called  also 
" dental '^  or  *^ lingual,"  or  "-alveolar."  If  the  closure  is  made 
by  the  Hps,  we  have  the  lip-stops  or  ^'labials."  The  great 
difference  between  Gr.  and  Eng.  stops,  particularly  the  surd 
ones,  lies  in  the  more  energetic  closure  and  explosion  of  the 
G.,  amounting  almost  to  an  H  (aspiration). 

383.  1.  k  (back-shut-surd)  is  represented  by  f,  as  in  ,^a^e, 
buf,  ^ra^en;  by  d):  a,  before  i^  (in  the  same  stem);  6,  in  foreign 
words  before  back  vowels.  Ex.:  a.  %n&ii,  fed)5,  33ud^ebaum, 
juad)fen  ;  but  wad)fam.  b.  Sl)ara'cter,  Sbao^,  (£i)olera.  But  see 
375,  4;  378,  3.  Also  by  c!,  dt,  with  prolonged  closure:  2^idt, 
3urudfel)ren.  By  final  g  in  S.  G.  and  according  to  the  standard 
pronunciation.     See  375,  4;  385,  3;  20. 

This  9  is  not  strongly  exploded,  has  no  aspiration,  and  is  called  with 
final  t)  and  b  by  German  phonetists  "  tonlose  media,"  by  the  people 
"  hard"  h,  b.  To  English  speakers  it  seems  absurd  to  speak  of  a  "  surd  " 
or  "  hard ''  h.  We  would  call  these  sounds  %>,  t,  k  ;  i.  e.  surd  stops,  unas- 
pirated,  slightly  exploded. 

a.  Also  by  final  g  preceded  by  n,  but  only  in  N.  G.,  as  in  lang,  iung. 
See  386,  1. 

2.  g  (back-shut  sonant)  is  represented  by  g  initial  and  when 
doubled,  as  in  gel)en,  fagen,  drgern,  baggern,  Sgge,     See  375,  4. 

384.  1.  t  (point-shut-surd)  is  represented  by  t,  tt,  as  in 

SBette,  l)eute,  2;ante,  ^ut ;  by  t^,  as  in  %\>o.i,  X^oX,  formerly  very 
common  finally,  as  in  ^ut^,  §eirat^,  ipeimat|,  which  are  now 
spelt  without  ^.  Also  by  b  final,  as  in  3:o5,  gefdjeit,  fmt),  ^leiD, 
^dnt^c^en.  See  385,  3.  By  tt  only  in  ©tatt  and  its  deriva- 
tives, but  formerly  more  frequent,  as  in  tobt,  33rott,  gefdjeitt, 
Srnlte,  which  are  now  spelt  tot,  53rot,  etc. 

2.  d  (point-shut-sonant)  is  represented  by  t  initial  and 
medial,  as  in  tianlen,  ler,  Soten,  ^letter,  3BitCer* 


172  PHONOLOGY — THE  COIJSONAXTS.  [385- 

385.  1.  p  (lip-shut-surd)  is  represented  by  p,  pp  (see  382, 
but  Eng.  p  before  vowels  is  often  as  strongly  aspirated,  e.  g., 
pound,  par,  pat.  Ex. :  ^uber,  ^rad)t,  ^aupt,  ^appe,  3Cappen» 
Also  by  16  final,  as  in  XieB,  Qob,  Ikh,  ^ob,  ^ob|l,  mh^t,  lieb^t*  See 
sub  3. 

2.  b  (lip-sbut-sonant)  is  represented  by  medial  and  initial  K 
For  final  b  see  sub  3.    Ex.:  ^i3fe,  55ube,  (Sbbe,  frafckln. 

3.  Final  b^  h  are  therefore  pronounced  t,  p  all  over  Germany,  and  g  as 
k  according  to  tlie  standard  pronunciation,  but  not  in  N.  G.  See  383, 1. 
For  9  after  n  see  383,  1,  a. 

4.  Before  b,  h,  %,  pronounced  as  surd  stops,  the  liquids  I,  n,  m  are  short, 
and  not  long  as  in  English.  Pronounce  wilb  therefore  nearly  with  the  it 
of  Eng.  wilt,  unb  with  the  nd  of  hunt,  not  of  hound,  wild. 

Nasals. 

386.  The  nasals  are  also  "  shut "  consonants,  but  they  are 
not  stops  (with  explosion).  The  air  passes  through  the  nose, 
and  we  distinguish  them  according  to  the  place  of  contact. 

q  is  the  "  back-nasal-sonant "  common  to  Eng.  and  G.,  as 
in  Eng.  bring,  G.  fringe,  ftnge. 

1.  q  is  represented  by  n  before  l,  before  g  in  N.  G.,  and  by 
medial  ng.  Ex. :  Zxaxit,  SBinf,  bangc,  (ange,  finger.  Final  ng  is 
q  according  to  the  standard,  e.  g.,  ®efang,  l)ing.  For  N.  G. 
final  ng  see  383,  1.  Also  by  n  of  en,  in,  on,  an,  ent  final  in  for- 
eign words,  as  in  Xaup^in,  balancieren,  ^2l»ancement,  (^^catron, 
33oubon, 

This  is  an  unsuccessful  attempt  of  Germans  at  pronouncing  the 
French  nasal  vowels,  which  are  not  at  all  identical  with  q  ;  q  does  not 
exist  in  French.  Though  incorrect,  this  sound  is  given  by  the  educated 
classes  and  by  the  stage. 

387.  n  is  the  "point-nasal"  (half-dental).  For  Eng.  and 
G.  n,  see  381.  n  is  represented  by  n,  nn  as  generally  written, 
except  where  it  becomes  either  guttural  or  labial  by  the  prox- 
imity of  guttural  and  labial  consonants.     (See  386.)     Ex.: 


389]  PHONOLOGY — ^THE   CONSONANTS.  173 

I'enDen,  ^ant),  ©pinne,  53untet,  man^e,  Zm6:^t,  tuo^nen,  3:^rott,  njaniten 
=  vantn. 

388.  m,  the  lip-nasal,  is  identical  in  Eng.  and  G.  It  is 
represented  by  m,  mm:  ^Ji}Junt>,  (Btimme,  marm;  also  by  en  after 
B  and  p,  as  in  pumpen  =^puinpm,  Jreppen  =  trepm. 

1.  In  untaught  pronunciation  not  influenced  by  the  letter,  n  is  also 
pronounced  as  m  before  f,  as  in  fanft/  fiinf,  ^anf^  Bufunft,  3unft.  Over- 
precise  speakers  pronounce  as  two  full  syllables  words  like  B(et='16cn>  Sum== 
^cn,  fin^ben,  ftn^gen/  etc.,  but  persons  speaking  naturally  pronounce  as 
stated  above. 

Compound  Consonants. 

389.  These  are  composed  of  single  sounds  already  de- 
scribed, but  some  of  them  seem  to  call  for  special  mention. 
Their  elements  are  closely  joined  together  without  any  glide. 

1.  pf  is  composed  of  p  and  \,  and  is  always  represented  by 
pf,  as  in  ^firftdJ,  ^ampf,  ^arpfen,  8umpf.  But  this  pf  is  not  pro- 
nounced except  by  a  special  effort.  The  current  and  "  natu- 
ral "  pf  is  composed  of  a  lip-teeth-stop  and  f.  (This  was  first 
noticed  by  Sievers  and  Sweet.)  The  first  element  being  formed 
by  lower  lip  and  teeth  instead  of  by  lower  and  upper  lips,  as  in 
a  real  lip-stop.  Final  pf  is  in  N.  G.  commonly  made  into  \, 
but  it  is  not  to  be  imitated. 

2.  ks  is  composed  of  the  surd  back-shut  and  the  surd 
blade-open,  as  in  Eng.  Represented  by  y,  as  in  3lvt,  2;c):t,  ^m, 
5l(cyanter ;  also  by  cbc  and  d)f,  if  of  the  same  stem,  as  in  2Bad)^, 
Deafen.    See  383,  1. 

3.  ts  is  composed  of  the  surd  t  (point-shut)  and  s  the  surd 
blade-open.  Represented  by  i,  as  in  3wnc;e,  ^k{,  ^Ceigen,  SJarje ; 
by  tj,  as  in  (Sprii^en,  fd)tv{^en,  ^a^e ;  by  c  in  foreign  words  before 
front  vowels,  as  in  %at'nt,  (Eitn'l,  3Recenfe'nt,  (EuUba't,  etc.;  by  t  in 
foreign  words  before  i,  as  in  ^atle'ut,  ^J]atio'n,  etc 


174  PHOKOLOGY — THE   CONSON^ANTS.  [390- 

4.  G.  ts  differs  from  Eng.  ts  in  cats,  liats  in  this  respect .  in  G  ts  S  is 
long,  in  Eng.  ts  t  is  long.  In  |1  =  sht  and  fp  =  shp  (see  378,  3)  the  first 
element  is  also  short.  In  "  natural "  pronunciation  final  j  in  N  G  is 
made  into  ^  after  n,  rarely  after  r  and  I  ;  so  that  ganj  becomes  ®an^, 
©c^wanj  >  (3(^tt)an<3.    But  this  is  not  classical. 

5.  Though  there  are  doubled  letters,  both  vowels  and  consonants, 
there  are  no  doubled  sounds.  Double  vowels  denote  one  long  vowel,  as 
in  <Sci(d,  <Btaat,  ^oo^,  and  double  consonants  are  long  energetic  conso- 
nants, as  in  SKette,  '^afc  2^re^^e,  jerren,  Prefer,  Sonne,  aUe.  But  the  conso- 
nants are  not  always  long  and  short  in  G.  in  the  same  places  where  they 
are  so  in  Eng.  See,  for  instance,  385,  4.  Final  consonants  are  short  in 
German.  Compare  ?Wann,  Wo|I/  ^ut  with  Eng.  man,  well,  hut  The 
Eng.  sonant  stops  d,  g,  b  are  very  long  and  their  sonancy  is  very  em- 
phatic. Tliis  is  not  so  in  German.  Compare  fib  be  —  ebb,  (Sgge  —  dagger, 
etc. 

ON  A  STANDARD    OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

390.  While  Germans  have  a  common  literary  language, 
they  have  not  a  common  spoken  language.  German  cannot 
boast  of  such  authorities  in  pronunciation  as  French  has  in 
Paris,  in  the  French  Academy  and  in  the  Theatre  Fran9ais. 
Provincialism,  so  strong  in  German  politics  and  other  institu- 
tions, is  particularly  strong  in  pronunciation.  All  sections  of 
the  country  readily  acknowledge  the  "  Schriftsprache  "  as  the 
common  language  of  the  country,  but  in  pronouncing  the 
same  they  claim  the  utmost  liberty. 

1.  One  can  hear  professors  of  the  German  language  at  the  universities 
speaking  in  the  purest  dialect-pronunciation ;  so  one  can,  preifchers  in 
the  churches  and  representatives  in  the  state-legislatures  and  in  the 

2.  The  great  authors  of  the  classical  period,  Lessing,  Goethe,  Schiller, 
Klopstock,  etc. ,  pronounced  the  literary  language  with  strong  dialect 
coloring.  One  of  Lessing's  favorite  phrases  was :  «(£«  fommt  boc^  nid^t^ 
babet  ^erau^,"  which  he  is  said  to  have  pronounced  ^""^  fommt  bo(|  nifc^tapei 
■•rau^."  Goethe  was  called  "  Gete  "  by  them.  Compare  Goethe's  defence 
of  dialect  in  «5lud  meinem  Seben"  (Hart's  Goethe's  Prose,  p.  19-20). 


391]  PHOJTOLOGY — STANDARD   OF   PRONUN'CIATION'.  175 

3.  To  dialect  pronunciation  are  mostly  due  such  bad  rhymes  as  :  2eute  : 
SBeite;  f(i)on  :  ge^n;  fru^  :  nie;  ^ij^^:  ©ee;  feme  :  ©eprne;  which  occur  in 
their  poems.  Platen,  Riickert,  and  Bodenstedt  carefully  avoid  these 
rhymes.  In  families  of  culture  in  Cologne  you  hear  dlt  and  dat  for  bie^ 
and  ba^.  In  Bremen  are  still  families  who  take  pride  in  having  the 
children  learn  the  L.  G.  dialect  first. 

4.  In  Hanover,  both  in  the  city  and  in  the  surrounding  districts  of  the 
province,  the  pronunciation  is  generally  considered  classical,  and  yet 
Hanoverian  has  three  strong  provincialisms  :  1,  jlf  fp»  which  most  Ger- 
mans pronounce  fc^t,  f(^^)  ;  2,  they  pronounce  the  sonant  stop  g  as  the 
spirant,  while  it  should  be  pronounced  as  a  surd  stop  just  what  all  Ger- 
mans make  of  6  and  b;  3,  in  the  city  itself  a  is  made  almost  into  long  a. 

391.  The  only  institution  that  claims  to  have  a  standard 
and  tries  to  come  up  to  it  is  tlie  stage.  The  best  theatres  of 
Germany  and  the  better  actors,  followed  by  a  very  small  num- 
ber of  the  cultured,  strive  after  a  dialect-free  pronunciation. 
The  standard  set  up  by  them  decides  the  disputed  points  as 
follows  : 

1.  Initial  ft,  fp  are  to  be  pronounced  f(^t,  f(^p.     See  24. 

2.  Final  g  is  surd  except  after  n  (386,  1),  but  see  the  Pre- 
face :  53er9  berc,  2Beg  wee,  liegt  lict. 

3.  Pronounce  r  trilled,  not  uvular  or  guttural,  as  in  North 
Germany  and  in  the  larger  cities. 

4.  North  and  Middle  Germans  pronounce  initial  f  and  f  be- 
tween vowels  as  sonants  ;  the  standard  is  not  quite  settled, 
but  will  probably  come  to  sonant  f. 

5.  The  rounded  vowel  should  be  fully  rounded.  The  ex- 
treme N.  G.  pronounces  u,  o,  ii  (short)  in  ^age^utte,  !omm\ 
^iitte  too  much  like  Eng.  but,  come,  hut.  The  extreme  S.  G. 
likes  to  unround  ii  >  i,  o  >  e» 

6.  2:ag,  3wg,  SCeg  have  long  vowels,  =  tac,  zuc,  wee.  See 
sub  2;  also  488,  2,  &. 

7.  The  lip-teeth  m  and  not  the  S.  G.  labio-labial  bh  has  the 
preference. 


176  PHONOLOGY — ABLAUT.  [392- 

392.  1.  But  it  is  possible  to  have  a  dialect-free  pronunciation  and 
yet  have  dialect-accent,  2.  e.,  **  intonation,"  "  modulation  of  voice."  Very 
pronounced  are,  e.  g. ,  the  "  accents  "  of  Berlin,  Vienna,  Bavaria  (Miinchen), 
Saxony,  which  can  be  distinguished  without  much  diflBculty  even  in  a 
good  pronunciation.  The  stage  favors  the  North  German  "  accent,"  par- 
ticularly the  Hanoverian,  and  this  is  at  bottom  what  is  meant  by  saying 
the  Hanoverian  is  the  best  pronunciation. 

2.  There  is  another  reason,  however,  wliy  the  N.  G.  pronunciation  is 
"  purer,"  as  it  is  generally  called,  than  S.  G.  The  Low  German  dialects 
are  farther  removed  from  the  classical  language  than  the  High  German. 
The  contrast  is  felt  more  in  North  Germany  than  in  South  Germany. 
The  school  and  the  educated  make  a  stronger  effort  to  acquire  the  stan- 
dard pronunciation  as  far  as  there  is  any.  The  N.  G.  is  more  influenced 
by,  and  has  a  higher  respect  for,  the  written  language.  He  pronounces 
according  to  the  letter  before  him.  Compare,  for  instance,  b  and  p/ 
which  the  Saxon  calls  a  "  soft  b  "  and  a  "hard  I\" 

3.  Another  reason  for  the  purity  of  N.  G.  lies  also  in  the  political  and 
intellectual  predominance  of  the  Northern  half  of  Germany  for  nearly 
two  hundred  years.  The  speakers  of  S.  G.  dialects  are  divided  between 
Switzerland.  Germany,  and  Austria.  The  modem  theatre  also  developed 
earlier  in  N.  Germany  than  in  S.  Germany. 

4.  The  Swiss  too  can  speak  dialect-free  German  when  conversing 
with  strangers,  of  whom  they  of  course  see  a  great  many.  They  make 
then  a  special  effort  to  drop  their  dialect,  which  is  nearly  as  far  removed 
from  the  written  language  as  is  a  Low  German  dialect. 

5.  One  thing  is  surprising,  viz.,  that  the  excellent  G.  school-system 
has  not  more  power  to  spread  a  common  spoken  language.  It  is  true, 
the  school  does  modify  the  dialect,  but  when  the  child  has  left  school,  its 
language  relapses,  as  a  rule,  into  pure  dialect. 


SOME    PHONETIC    LAWS,    LIKE    ABLAUT,    UMLAUT, 
GRIMM'S  AND  VERNER'S  LAWS,  ETC. 

Ablaut. 

393.  Ablaut  is  the  gradation  of  vowels,  both  in  stem  and 
suffix,  under  the  influence  of  accent.  The  vowels  vary  within 
certain  series  of  related  vowels  called  ablaut-series. 


395]  PHONOLOGY — ABLAUT.  177 

The  ablaut  of  suffix-vowels,  e.  g.^  of  case-sufflxes,  is  difficult  to  determine  even  for 
BO  early  a  period  as  O.  H.  G.  or  Ags.    We  shall  speak  only  of  the  stem-vowel-ablaut. 

The  phenomenon  of  ablaut  appears  in  all  the  I.  E.  languages  aud  is  characteristic 
of  the  Teutonic  languages,  only  in  so  far  as  a  very  large  system  of  verb-inflection  has 
been  developed.  On  the  Greek  ablaut,  see  Amer.  Journ.  of  Phil .  vol.  I.,  No.  3,  p. 
281 — ,  an  article  by  Bloomfield. 

394.  Osthoff  and  Brugman  have  the  credit  of  establishing  as 
many  as  four  grades  or  stages  of  ablaut,  viz.,  hochstufe^  strong 
and  weak;  iiefslufe,  strong  and  weak,  which  may  be  called  in 
Eng.  strong,  medium,  weak,  zero.  They  do  not  appear  in  every 
series.  But  the  second  has  them  all,  viz.,  ''aw'*  strong;  "ew — lu" 
medium;  "22"  weak;  "2^  "zero.  The  first  two  stand  under  the 
strong  accent;  the  third  under  the  secondary,  the  last  in  the 
unaccented  syllable. 

Why  there  should  be  a  difiference  of  vowel  under  the  strong  accent  is  not  clear,  but 
the  fact  of  two  grades  is  undeniable. 

1.  For  the  I.  E  or  Parent-speech-period  three  series  have  been  recon- 
structed with  tolerable  certainty  and  there  are  traces  of  several  more. 
But  the  exact  quality  of  the  vowels  can  hardly  be  determined,  o  of  the 
first  I.  E.  series  was  probably  unrounded,  and  more  a  than  o,  see  459. 

1.  e — o,  G.  T.  e,  i — a,  appears  in  I.  to  V. 

2.  Sr— a,  G.  T.  a— 5,  in  VI.,  sae  459,  4. 

3.  e — o,  O.  H.  G.  a — uo,  in  G.  tat,  Jtiat  —  tuon,  t^un. 

We  give  the  Germanic  series  in  Braune's  order.  (See  his  Gothic  grammar,  followed 
also  by  Sievers  in  his  Ags.  and  Paul  in  his  M.  H.  G.  grammar.) 

395.  *  I.  Ablaut-series. 

*1  2  3  4 

strong.  medium,      weak.  zero. 

G.  T.  ai  ei  i  i 


O.  H.  G.     ai,  ei,  ^  i  i,  e 

N.H.  G.     ei(ie,  i),  e  ei  i  (ie),  e,  e. 

Compare  Gr.  TreVotfla,  Tretfloj,  KAt/jia^,  TreTTifljAev;   oi/oto?,  eijoit,  i/u,evai,  \.\x.tv,     J  Is  the  zerO 

stage,  because  the  first  element  of  the  diphthong,  e — o,  has  disappeared,  while  the 
second,  the  consonant  element  of  the  falling  diphthong,  has  become  a  vowel. 

*  The  figures  I., 11.,  etc.,  always  refer  to  the  ablaut-series :  the  figures  1,  2,  3, 4  refer 
to  the  ablaut  stage. 


178  PHON^OLOGY — ABLAUT.  [396- 

Ex. :  1,  leren,  le^ren,  <  laisjan,  to  teach ;  leva,  Se^re,  4-  Ags.  Idr,  Eng. 
lore  ;  Seiften  +  last  (Kluge);  pret.  sg.  of  strong  verbs  of  CI.  I.  2  and  3, 
pres.  of  verbs  of  CI.  I.  4,  £i|l,  lernen,  with  the  words  of  1,  from  the  same 
Vlxs.  X  represents  the  vowel  that  is  to  appear  according  to  accent  and 
is  an  unknown  quantity  in  the  root.  1,  jeigen,  Beigeftngcr;  3  and  3,  jei^en; 
4,  gejie^en,  ijerjic^ten,  all  from  a  Vdxc.  Compare  L.  dicere.  Notice  the 
Eng.  cognates  show  in  1,  a,  o :  ladder,  wrote,  last,  lore,  loaf;  in  2  and  3: 
i,  rise,  smite  ;  in  4,  i :  risen,  smitten,  list. 

396.     II.  Ablaut-series. 


1 

2 

8 

4 

G.  T. 

au 

eu 

t 

w 

U 

0.  H.  G. 

ou,  6 

iu,  eo,  io 

U 

u,  5 

N.  H.  G. 

0,0 

ie,  eu 

au 

n,  0,  0, 

All  fonr  grades  still  apparent  in  German,  ft  bears  the  same  relation  to  eu,  au  as  I 
to  gi,  ai.    See  above.    Compare  x«Fw,  xoF»?,  x^'mos?  x^'^°^' 

Ex.:  From  the  VCT:  l.So^e,  flame.  2,  2t(^t  <  lieht,Uuii)tm,  +  light. 
4,  Sud^^  +  lynx(?).  From  a  Vklu  :  2,  Seumunb.  3,  laut  <  Mat  +  loud  ; 
4,  Subwig,  Sutler,  Gr.  k?.vt6c,  L.  indutus.  Again,  2,  ftec^  +  sick,  ®eud}e, 
and  4,  ©ud^t.  See  the  strong  verbs  of  CI.  II.  <  i^b'xd' :  1,  hot  pret.  of 
Metem  2,  Meten,  ®eMet.  4,  Sote,  ®tM,  Siittel  +  beadle.  Eng.  bid  repre- 
sents older  beodan  II.  and  hiddan  V.  The  corresponding  Eng.  vowels  are 
very  irregular. 

397.     III.  Ablaut-series. 

1  8  8,4 

G.  T.         a  e,  i  u  before  r,  1,  m,  n 

German    a,  e  (umlaut)  e,  i  u,  o» 

As  to  3  and  4,  see  459,  3,  a.    The  roots  all  end  in  r,  1,  m,  n  +  cons. 

Ex. :  See  the  strong  verbs  of  CI.  III.  From  the  root  of  winbeii,  wanb, 
getounben,  +  wind  :  1,  bie  SBanb,  mnben  <  *wandjan,  +  Eng.  wend,  oewanbt, 
tt>anbern  +  wander,  etc.  2,  bic  2Binbe,  Sinbel.  <  Germanic  Vbxrg. 
1.  barg  pret.  sg.  2,  SSerg,  ®ebirge,  bergen.  3,  4,  SSurg,  +  burgh,  borough, 
to  burrow.  SBitrger,  SSiirge,  borgen  +  borrow(?).  Also  -f  bury.  Correspond- 
ing Eng.  vowels  in  verbs  before  nasals  are  i  in  2,  a  in  1,  u  in  4,  e.g.,  spin, 
span,  spun.  In  nouns,  etc.,  they  are  quite  irregular,  but  generally  also 
e  or  i,  a,  u,  o. 


400]  PHOi^OLOGY — ABLAUT.  179 

398.     IV.  Abiaut-series. 


G.  T. 

1 
a,  e 

2 

e 

8r4 

n 

0.  H.  G. 

a,  a 

e,  i 

u,  o 

N.  H.  G. 

a 

e,  e,  ie,  i 

w,  u,  0,  9. 

The  roots  end  in  a  single  liquid  or  nasal,  or  these  stand  before  the  vowels.  §,  §L  are 
not  yet  explained. 

Ex. :  Verbs  of  CI.  IV.,  fle^Ien,  ffa^I,  geflo^Ien.  1,  Diebfla^I.  <  Vdxm. 
1,  laljm,  jd^men  +  tame.  2,  gejiemcn.  3,  4,  3unft.  <  Vb'xr.  1,  bie  33ai)rer 
+  bier,  barrow(?),  jtc^  geba^ren,  bie  ®eMrbe,  -bar.  2,  geMren  +  bear,  (£tmer  < 
ein-ber,  Buber  <  zwiber  (see  Kluge).  3,  4,  bie  SBiirbe  +  burthen,  bie  ®eBurt 
+  birth,  bie  ®eM^r(?),  geM^rlic^.  Eng.  cognates  show  generally  ea,  o, 
e.  g.,  bear,  bore. 

399.     V.  Ablaut-series. 


G.T. 

1 
a,  d 

2,3,4 

0.  H.  G. 

aij  a 

e,  i 

N.  H.  G. 

Ci,Ci 

e,  ?,  t,  ie 

Only  two  grades.    The  roots  end  in  a  single  consonant,  not  a  liquid  or  nasal. 

Ex.  :  Verbs  of  CI.  V.  <  Germanic  tgxb.  1,  gab,  ®ak.  2,  3,  4, 
geben,  gegeben,  bu  giebfl,  bie  and  ba^  ®ift.  Eng.  vowels  the  same,  +  give, 
gave,  gift. 


400.     VI.  Ablaut-series. 


4 

n 
n 


Ex. :  Verbs  of  CI.  VI.  <  l^pxr.  1,  fu^r,  fiif)ren.  2,  3,  fa|ren,  bie  ^a|rt. 
4,  bie  Surt  +  ford.  <  Vmxl.  1,  M.  H.  Q-.  rauol  (now  ma^Ite).  2,  3, 
marten,  S^c^l  +  meal,  malmen,  MoXizx.  4,  9J?it^Ie  +  mill,  WvSitx,  ^\x%  3KauI=^ 
tDurf  +  mole,  by  popular  etymology  <  moUwurf  +  mould-warp. 


1 
G.T.          6 

0.  H.  G.     uo 

N.  H.  G.    u,  it 

2,3 

a(o?) 

a,  e 

a,  e  (umlaut) 

4  Not  in  the  past  part., 

,  only 

in  nouns.    A  diffict 

180  PHONOLOGY — UMLAUT.  [401- 

Umlaut. 

401.  Umlaut  is  the  modification  of  an  accented  vowel  by 
an  i  (j)  in  the  next  syllable.     See  362. 

1.  By  it  a,  o,  u  become  sounds  lying  nearer  to  i.  In  other  words,  back  and  mixed 
vowels  become  more  like  front  vowels  through  the  influence  of  front  vowels.  The 
tougue-position  of  back  and  mixed  vowels  changes  to  "front,"  while  the  rest  of  the 
articulation  remains  the  same.  This  "fronting"  is  called  by  the  Grcrmans  "mouil- 
lierung,"  i.e.,  palatalization.  Sievers'  theory  is  that  the  intervening  consonants  were 
first  aff"ected  and  then  the  immediately  preceding  vowel.  Such  palatalized  consonants 
are  the  Fr.  1  and  n  still  in  '■feuiUe  "  <  folium,  Espagne  <  Sispania. 

2.  To  understand  umlaut  we  must  go  back  to  a  period  in  which  i  (j) 
was  still  tolerably  intact  as  in  O.  H.  G.  But  there  was  only  one  umlaut 
marked  in  that  period,  viz.,  that  of  a  and  its  sign  was  e  just  like  the 
original  e  now  distinguished  by  "  =  e.  In  M.  H.  G.  the  umlaut  of  the 
other  vowels  appears  and  is  unfortunately  very  irregularly  represented. 
Sievers  supposes  that  the  consonants  were  already  palatalized  in  O.  H.  G. 
and  that  they  imparted  their  change  to  the  vowel  in  M.  H.  G.  But  it  is 
also  very  likely  that  the  vowels  were  already  palatalized  in  O.  H.  G., 
only  the  alphabet  was  not  sufficient  to  show  the  change. 

Ex. :  lamp — lembir,  Cammer;  gabi  >  gaebe  >  o^dbt,  pret.  sbj. ;  gast — 
gasti  >  geste,  ®a|le;  *  ali-lantjo  >  di-lenti  >  eUende>  elenb,  unfortunate 
because  in  an  "  other  country ; "  scdni  >  schoene  >  f(^on;  angil  >  Sngcl; 
bosi  >  Wfe,  etc. 

402.  The  extent  of  this  phenomenon  varies  with  the  period  and  the  dialect.  Certain 
consonants  have  prevented  umlaut.  But  we  cannot  enter  upon  a  further  discussion. 
Compare  gebulbig,  gcrcalttg.  By  umlaut,  then,  a  >  &,  e;  o  (^)  >  5  (-) ;  u  >  ii  (-) ;  au  > 
ill,  eu,  but  this  only  seemingly  in  cases  where  au  <  fl,  since  tl  passed  into  tl  (iu)  and  this 
Into  eu,  au,  according  to  488,  5. 

1.  While  in  German  umlaut  is  still  a  living  factor,  it  is  dead  in  Eng.  and  has  been 
for  some  8-900  years.  Eng.  only  has  isolated  forms  with  umlaut,  e.  g.,  mouse— mice, 
cow— kine,  etc.,  that  helong  to  no  system  of  inflection  or  derivation  in  which  umlaut 
eerves  as  the  expression  of  a  function  or  meaning.  We  call  the  above  examples  "  ir- 
regular "  plurals. 

2.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  "  rflckumlaut "  =  "  umlaut  reversed."  as  the  old  gram- 
marians called  it.  e  g.,iu  benfen,  ba^te,  geba^t.    See  454,  3. 

Interchanges  of  Vowels:  c  —  t,  ic;  no  Umlaut  —  TTmlaut ; 
tt  —  0  ;  ic  —  cu» 

403.  c  —  i  (ic).  1,  where  e  is  original,  that  is  G.  T.  and 
I.  E.  e.  e  passed  into  i  before  i  (j)  standing  in  the  unac- 
cented syllable,  a  process  exactly  analogous  to  umlaut;  e  >  i 


405]  PHONOLOGY — PHONETIC  LAWS.     U — 0.  181 

also  before  a  nasal  belonging  to  the  same  syllable,  generally 
before  nasal  -}-  cons.  The  physiological  reason  for  the  latter 
change  is  not  clear. 

Ex.:  The  present  of  CI.  III.,  IV.,  V,,  see  also  the  O.  H.  G.  paradigm. 
The  first  p.  sg.  nimu  may  be  due  to  analogy,  but  in  O.  H.  G.  and  Ags. 
e  >  i  also  before  u  and  it  may  therefore  be  a  phonetic  transition,  fi^en, 
liet^cn,  Htten  have  i  all  through,  see  457, 1,  but  ©effel  <  se^^al.  %t\'Q — ®eftlbe 
<gifikH.  rc^t  —  ric^ten  <  *rihtjon,  +  L.  rectus.  Seber  —  ®eftebcr;  fern  — 
ftrn  <  firni.     Verbs  of  III.  CL:  ftnben,  f(^n>immen.    ®et>en  —  ®tft  <  gifti. 

2,  i  is  original,  but  passed  into  e  before  a,  e,  o  in  the  next 
syllable  or  if  the  word  ended  in  a  consonant,  i  remained 
before  i  (j)  and  before  w. 

The  cases  of  i  >  e  are  not  numerous.  It  is  a  High  German  and  Old  Saxon  peculiar- 
ity.   Eng.  has  still  i.    This  is  still  caDed  Sret^ung  after  Grimm, 

Ex. :  lid  —  erquitf en  +  quick,  quicken ;  leben  +  live,  flekn  4  cleave, 
fc^wetten  belong  to  ablauts.  I.  with  the  zero  grade.  3}ertt)efen,  to  decompose, 
compare  L.  mrus,  Skr.  msh-am.    Sekr  +  liver.     9Jed)  +  Eng.  pitch  < 

h.  pics,    ©teg  <  same  root  as  jleigen  I.;  SBec^fel 1-  Lat.  vic-es.    er  < 

ir,  +  Lat.  is. 

404.  TTmlaut  —  no  umlaut. 

Ex,  :  Verbs  of  VI.  and  VII.  CI.,  but  in  the  latter  mostly  by  analogy, 

e.g.,  faru,f erst,  fert  —  fa^re,  fd'l^rf!,  fci^rt,  3llt  —  ©Item  <  eltiron.  Comp. 
+  elders.  Stbet  <  adal  —  ebel  <  edUi.  Comp.  +  Ethel.  Very  numer- 
ous and  the  umlaut  often  more  or  less  hidden. 

405.  U  —  0*  In  the  stem-syllable  u  is  always  the  older  and 
passed  into  o  before  a,  e,  o.  It  was  preserved  hke  i  before 
i  (j),  w  and  a  nasal  belonging  to  the  same  syllable. 

This  process  is  also  one  of  assimilation  similar  to  umlaut,  called  "ftrecAwng'''' by 
the  older  grammarians. 

Ex.:  See  verbs  of  CI.  II.,  III.,  IV.  in  the  past  part,  and  compare  with 
them  the  pret.  pi.  and  nouns  from  the  same  stem,  e.  g. ,  ^luc^t,  3uc^t,  35er=* 
nunfr,  Bunft.  ©oUtc  <  scolta  —  ©c^ulb ;  ^clb  —  ■C'ulb  <  huldi  ;  :^oI)l  —  ^utte, 
^  <  ykxl.  ®olb  —  ®ulben  (a  coin),  but  golbcn  +  golden  by  analogy  ;  33ote 
—  Siittel  <  hutil.  The  transition  before  nasals  is  quite  modern  and  M.  G. 
Comp.  (Sonne  <  sunna ;  ©ommer  <  sumer  :  (So^n  <  sunu  ;  past  part,  of  IIL 
Before  n  +  cons,  (not  n)  u  remains  now,  gefunben,  S3unb,  gefunfen,  ^Infunft. 


182  PHOKOLOGY — PHOKETIC   LAWS — GRIMM'S.  [406- 

406.  tc  (io)  —  cu  (iu).  iu  being  levelled  away  and  ie  stand- 
ing for  both  io  and  iu,  this  interchange  is  not  common  now. 
Both  iu  and  io  <  G.  T.  eu.  eu  >  iu  before  i  (j)  and  w,  but 
>  eo  before  a,  e,  o;  and  later  eo  >  io  >  ie,  ie.  The  process 
is  e  >  i  and  u  >  o  in  the  same  diphthong. 

Ex. :  Ablauts,  and  CI.  II.,  see  124,  Remark.  Sa^  ba  freud^t  unb  jleugt 
(Sch.).     Meten  —  S3eute  (?>  S3eutel  (?). 

Grimm's  Law  or  the  "  shifting  of  mutes"  2aut»erfc^iebung. 

407.  It  concerns  the  so-called  "mutes,"  b,  p,  f;  d,  t,  th;  g, 
k,  ch,  media,  tenuis,  aspirata.  This  law  was  discovered  by 
Rask,  but  first  fully  stated  by  Jacob  Grimm.  It  includes  two 
great  shiftiugs,  the  first  prehistoric,  that  is,  General  Teutonic 
or  Germanic;  the  second,  historical  or  German.  The  first  is  a 
peculiarity  of  the  whole  group  and  shared  to  very  nearly  the 
same  extent  by  every  member  of  the  group;  the  second  is  a 
peculiarity  of  the  German  dialects  proper,  is  partial  both  as 
to  the  number  of  sounds  and  of  dialects  afiected.  We  very 
briefly  represent  the  first  shifting.  See  the  author's  article 
in  the  Amer.  Jour,  of  Phil.,  vol.  I.,  for  a  fxiller  account  Let 
y  represent  the  sonant  stops,  z  the  surd  ones  and  x  the  so- 
called  "  aspirate,"  which  represents  various  sounds.  The  fol- 
lowing formulas  will  be  of  use.  G.  is  added  now  merely  for 
illustration. 


Parent-speech,  I.  E. 

G.T. 

Q. 

L 

X                > 

y 

> 

Z 

n. 

y        > 

Z 

> 

X 

III. 

z          > 

X 

> 

y 

Notice  I.  E.  is  the  oldest  stage  of  the  language  reconstructed  from  the  various  I.  E. 
dialects.  You  can  suhstitute  for  I.  E.  any  language  but  the  Teutonic,  provided  j'ou 
make  allowance  for  any  changes  in  that  particular  language,  e.  g.^  d'  has  become  f  or  d 
in  Latin.  By  General  Teutonic  or  Germanic  is  meant  that  stage  which  is  reconstructed 
f5rom  all  the  Teutonic  dialects.  By  G .  we  mean  the  written  language  of  Germany  ;  H .  G. 
means  South  and  Middle  as  opposed  to  Low  German. 


410]  PHONOLOGY — PHOi^ETIC   LAWS— GRIMM's.  183 

Substitute  in  each  formula  the  labials,  dentals,  etc. 

408.  Form.  I.  1.  x  =  d'.  I.  E.  d'  =  d  -f  sonant  aspiration 
(Ellis),  "  sonant  affricate,"  this  d'  through  G.  T.  dh  (sonant 
spirant)  >  d  >  H.  G.  t,  but  dh  remains  in  Go.  and  Scand.,  e.g., 
I.  E.  *  d'ur-,  Gr.  ^vqn^  Jj.  fores,  >  G.  T.  *  dur-,  Eng.  door  > 
G.  3^|or —  VCjViX,  doublets. 

2.  X  r=  b'.    I.  E.  b'  >  G.  T.  bh,  b  >  G.  b,  e,  g.,  I.  E.  Vb^ 

ablauts.  II.,  Gr.  nv&-  >  G.  T.  Vb^,  Eng.  bid  >  G.  Hetcn,^ot, 
gefcoten.    No  German  shifting  of  b  >  p  therefore. 

3.  X  =  g'i.  I.  E.  g'l^  G.  T.  gh,  g  >  G.  g,  e.  g„  <  Vg^ 
(Skr.  A/hu  >  G.  T.  Vgu-),  *gud-,  Eng.  God  >  G.  ®ott,  "the 
being  invoked  "  (see  Kluge).     No  German  shifting  of  g>k. 

4.  X  =  g'2,  the  second  series  of  gutturals,  the  "  labiahzed  "  > 
G.  T.  g,  gw  (w)  if  medial,  >  G.  g,  or  zero  if  medial,  e.  g., 
I.  E.  *  ang"^,  L.  angustus  >  G.  T.  angu-,  Go.  aggwus  >  G.  enge 
<  angi  <  *  angwjo.  I.  E.  *  g^^ostis,  L.  hostis  >  G.  T.  ghost, 
gast,  +  Eng.  guest  >  G.  ®a(l. 

409.  Form.  II.  x  in  G.,  see  later. 

1.  y  =  d.  I.  E.  d  >  G.  T.  t,  Eng.  t.  A/dSnt,  to  eat,  I.  E. 
dont-,  L.  dent-s  >  G.  T.  tunth-,  Eng.  tooth  >  ^o^^n,  <  zand. 
Before  d  the  vowel  has  disappeared  by  apocope.  The  form 
is  participial  =  "the  eater"  (Kluge).  Comp.  L.  edere  > 
Eng.  eat  >  Gr.  ejyen. 

2.  y  ==  b.     I.  E.  b  is  very  rare  and  examples  doubtful. 


3.  y  =  gS  g^.  I.  E.  gi  >  G.  T.  k  =  G.  k.  <  Vgxl.,  L.  gelare 
>  G.  T.  ''kald,  Eng.  cold,  cool  +  G.  fait,  ful)l,  ablauts.  VL 
I.  E.  g^  >  G.  T.  kw,  k  =  G.  f,  qu,  e.  g.,  <  Vg^xm,  L.  venio  « 
*gvemio)y  G.  T.  queman,  Eng.  come,  +  G.  !ommen,  adj.  bequem. 
The  phonetic  change  of  y  >  z  consists  in  the  loss  of  sonancy. 

410.  Form.  III.  x  =  G.  T.  surd  spirant,  I.  E.  z  =  unaspi- 
rated  surd  stop. 


184  PHOi^OLOGY — PHOI^ETIC   LAWS — VERIs^ER'S.  [411- 

1.  z  =  I.  E.  t.  t  through  the  transition  stage  t'  =  t  +  surd 
aspiration  >  G.  T.  th  >  H.  and  L.  G.  d,  e.  ^.,  L.  tertius  > 
G.  T.  thridj-,  Eng.  third,  >  tritte. 

2.  z  ==  p.    I.  E.  p  >  G.  T.  f,  bilabial,  Eng.  f  >  G.  f :  L.  pisc-i3 

>  G.  T.  fisk-os  >  gi|c^,  +  Eng.  fish. 

3.  z  =  ki,  Is?,     I.  E.  ki  >  G.  T.  h,  kh,  >  G.  |,  ^.     Ex.  :  L. 

pecus  >  G.  T.f'ehu,  Eng.  fee,  >  S5ie^.    I.  E.  k2  >  G.  T.  hw,  h, 
Eng.  wh,  >  G.  m,  zero  =  silent  ^.     L.  sequ-or  >  G.  T.  sehw-an 

>  feben,  +  Eng.  see.    L.  quis,  quod  >  G.  T.  hweVf  hwat  +  Eng. 
who,  what,  >  G.  trer,  n?a^. 

Verner's  Law. 

411.  After  the  first  shifting  and  when  the  accent  was  not  yet 
limited  to  the  root-syllable  (see  420,  2)  a  new  phenomenon  ap- 
peared, viz.,  Verner's  Law  or  the  "  shifting  of  spirants."  The 
G.  T.  surd  spirants  th,  kh,  f,  s  became  sonant  spirants  and 
later  sonant  stops,  when  the  immediately  preceding  vowel  was 
unaccented.  This  affects  only  form.  III.,  but  the  transition 
of  sonant  spirants  into  sonant  stops  is  identical  with  the  tran- 
sition of  the  sonant  spirants  which  sprang  <  sonant  affi-icate 
according  to  form.  I.  See  408.  Hence  there  is  an  inter- 
change of  the  following  consonants:  th  —  dh,  d  which  became 
G.  t;  f  —  bh,  b;  kh,  khw  —  gh,  ghw,  g,  w;  s  —  z,  r.    See  416. 

As  to  accent,  see  420.  Students  who  know  Greek  can 
generally  go  by  the  Greek  accent,  which  is  often  still  the  I.  E. 

Ex. :  Gr.  narijp,  G.  T.  fathar  >  fadhar  (Go.)  >  fddar  (Ags.)  >  G. 
Sater,  M.  Eng.  has  again  dh  (through  Norse  influence?),  but  L.  frdter, 
G.  T.  brothar,  Eng.  brother  >  G.  S9rubcr  according  to  form.  III.  G.  T. 
lUhon,  lailh,  but  pi.  lidfioii-,  part,  lidhaii-,  Eng.  loathe,  >  G.  leiben  (litt  by 
levelling),  gcUtten.  L.  sequ  or,  G.  T.  sehwa?i,  sahw,  segwun^,  aegwan-, 
O.  S.  sehan,  sah,  sdwum,  gisewan,  Eng.  see,  saw,  seen  (levelling)  >  G. 
fe^cn,  fa^f  gefe^en  (levelling,  ^  silent).  G.  T.  wesan,  Unas,  wtrutnr-,w'esan-  > 
Eng.  was  —  were  >  G.  war  (levelling),  wareit/  gewefcn  (levelling).  Com- 
pare fiefcn  —  Ui  (for,  levelling)  —  geforen. 


413]    PHOKOLOGY — PHONETIC  LAWS— GERMAJT  SHIFTING.    185 

412.  In  certain  consonant  groups  the  first  shifting  of  Grimm's  Law 
allows  of  modifications. 

1.  Original  st,  sk,  sp  remain,  e.g.,  L.  vestigium  +  G.  ©teg,  ©teig;  L. 
sc  in  poscere  +  G.  T.  sk,  Eag.  and  G.  sh,  fc^  in  forfc^en,  waf(^en  (see  457,  4). 
L.  sp  in  spicere,  speculum  +  G.  fpci^en  +  espy,  spy. 

2.  Before  t  every  dental  has  become  s,  every  labial  f,  every 
guttural  kb,  dj,  while  t  remains  intact,  but  st  can  become  ss  by 
assimilation.     Examples  are  very  numerous. 

IDu  tnei§t  <  waist  <  *waid  +  t;  L.  cap-tus  +  G.  -^aft  (but  see  Kluge) ; 
L.  noct-em  +  G.  S'Jac^t  +  night;  SJiac^t  +  might  <  Vmxg',  from  which 
mag  —  mbgen,  ablauts.  VI. ;  gewip  <  *wid-to'  a  past  participle  <  Vwxd,  + 
L.  vid-,  +  to  wit,  wist.  The  differentiation  into  st  and  ss  is  difilcult  to 
explain.  Kogel  ascribed  it  to  accent,  but  see  Kluge,  P.  and  B.  Beitrage, 
vol.  Vlli.  A  different  origin  has  the  st  of  ?Ref^,  5!Jiajl  (of  a  ship),  ®er|le, 
and  a  very  few  others,  viz.,  <  zd.    For  these  see  Kluge.  See  also  454,  8. 

THE   GERMAN  SHIFTING. 

The  second  or  German  shifting  we  shall  treat  chiefly  with  a  view  to  represent  Eng. 
and  G.  cognates.  We  shall  not  treat  of  every  dialect  separately.  It  must  suffice  to  say 
that  upon  the  extent  of  shifting  the  classification  of  the  dialects  is  based.  See  480. 
For  a  full  account,  see  Braune's  article  in  P.  and  B.  Beitr.,  vol.  II.  In  fact,  to  Braune 
we  owe  the  best  light  that  has  been  thrown  upon  this  difficult  subject.  This  second 
shifting,  though  coming  within  the  historic  period  of  the  language,  had  been  much  less 
imderstood  and  more  misrepresented  than  the  first  shifting.  The  material  was  very 
difierent  from  that  of  the  first  shifting  and  the  result  had  to  be  different,  though  Grimm 
eupposed  that  the  first  stage  was  reached  again  in  H.  G.  Nor  is  there  room  to  enter 
into  the  chronology  of  the  various  steps,  though  it  has  been  tolerably  settled.  The 
latest  shifting,  th  >  d,  we  find  still  going  on  in  the  12th  century,  and  is  the  most  exten- 
sive of  all  the  shiftings.  Geographically  the  movement  began  in  the  South  and  the 
farther  North  it  spread  the  less  it  grew  and  the  later  it  occurred.  See  480.  We  follow 
the  order  of  the  formulas.  Where  Eng.  is  identical  with  G.  T.,  as  is  generally  the  case, 
the  Eng.  examples  will  at  the  same  time  illustrate  the  corresponding  sounds  and  the 
cognates  of  Eng.  and  G.    For  foreign  words  see  492-494. 

413.  Form.  I.    1.  G.  T.  d  >  G.  t.    Eng.  dead  —  G.  tot  ;  do 

—  tl)un;  bed  —  33ett;  steady — ftctig;  mother  for  M.  Eng.  moder 

—  Gutter  (see  411) ;  hoard  +  §ort. 

a.  Where  Eng.  d  —  G.  b  in  a  small  number  of  words,  there  d  has  been 
restored  in  N.  H.  G.  through  L.  or  M.  G.  influence,  M.  H.  G.  showing  t  ; 
or  the  word  has  come  from.  L.  G.  into  the  written  language.     Eng.  dumb 


186    PHONOLOGY— PHO]!TETIC  LAWS— GERMAN  SHIFTING.  [414- 

—  bumm;  dam  — Damm;  down— Diine;  "Dutch"  is  L.  G.  >  Eng.,  while 
G.  beutfc^  belongs  to  form.  III.  After  1  and  r  are  some  cases  of  d—  b,  e.g., 
wild  —  wilb;  mild  —  mitb;  murder  —  2J?orb.  These  are  due  to  a  change 
of  Ags.  th  >  d.  Also  after  n,  e.  g. ,  wind  —  toinben ;  bind  —  Mnben.  These 
are  due  to  a  change  of  0.  H.  G.  t  >  d. 

2.  Eng.  b  and  g  =  G.  b  and  g,  see  408,  e.  g.,  bold  —  kit; 
beck  —  33a(^ ;  gold  —  ®oIt ;  garden  —  ®arten.  For  mb  —  mm, 
see  490, 4.  But  b  and  especially  g  liave  often  disappeared  in 
Eng.  Compare  hawk  —  ^aHd^t  ;  ipaupt,  <  hotibit,  —  head  ; 
9legen  —  rain;  SSagen  —  wain.  G.  b  — Eng.  v,  ^aben  —  have; 
lieben  —  love,  etc. 

3.  G.  T.  bb  >  G.  ^|j:  Sflappe  <  *  rappo,  G.  T.  rabbo-,  but 
diah  —  raven,     ^nappe  <  *  knappo,  G.  T.  knabbo-,  but  ^nabc 

—  knave.    Sbbe  +  ebb,  is  L.  G. 

4  G.  T.  gg  >  G.  at,  but  G.  T.  gg  >  Eng.  dzh  (-dge). 
*miigj6,  Ags.  mycge,  Eng.  midge  —  G.  WMt,  *  hrugjo,  Ags. 
hrycge,  Eng.  ridge  —  G.  9lucfen.  Eng.  edge  —  Scfe,  bridge  — 
33ruc!e,  etc.     Sgge,  harrow,  is  L.  G. 

5.  y  =  Boiiant  stop  has  sprung  either  from  I.  E.  x  =  sonant  affricate  according  to 
form.  I.  or  from  I.  E.  z  =  surd  stop  >  G.  T.  surd  spirant  according  to  form.  HI.  and 
Vemer's  Law,  in  both  cases  through  a  sonant  spirant.  Notice  "  affricate  "  is  a  double 
consonant,  "  spirant "  is  a  single  one.  The  process  of  G.  T.  y  >  G.  z  is  loss  of  sonancy 
the  same  as  I.  E.  y  >  G.  T.  z.  Notice  that  consonants  were  doubled,  i.  e.,  lengthened 
before  West-germanic  j,  w,  r,  1,  as  the  examples  show,  see  389,  5. 

414.    Form.  H.     G.  T.  z  >G.  x.     1.  G.  T.  t  >  G.  ts  (3,  ^) 

and  this  remains  when  initial,  after  r,  [,  n  and  when  sprung 
from  tt,  but  becomes  :^  (Grimm's  sign),  supposed  to  have 
been  a  lisped  s,  and  later  s  (f,  §),  see  490,  2. 

In  M.  H.  G.  this  ^^  and  8  never  rhyme,  hence  they  must  have  been  different  sounds, 
tt  >  ts  is  much  later  than  t  >  ts. 

Examples  exceedingly  numerous:  tongue  —  Sunge ;  wart  —  SBarjc; 
holt  —  ^o\i;  mint  —  ?[Runje  <  L.  moneta  through  *  mUnita ;  ^sattjan  > 
Eng.  set  —  G.  fe^en  ;  whet  —  wc^en;  wheat  —  SBci^en;  sweat  —  fc^n)i|cn; 
water  —  aBaffcr;  hate  —  ^a§,  ^affcn,  etc.  AH  seeming  exceptions  can  be 
explained  in  some  way  or  other,  e.  g.,  in  foreign  words  introduced  since 
the  shifting :  tar  —  Sect  <  L.  G.;  temple  —  %mpd  <  L.  templum  ;  tun 


415]    PHOKOLOGY — PHOKEtIC   LAWS — GERMAN  SHIFTING.    187 

—  Xonnc  <  Keltic (?).  The  combination  tr  is  an  exception.  Compare  also 
ft,  kht,  St,  412,  2.  True  —  treu;  bitter  —  bitter  <  G.  T.  Utr-os  ;  winter  — 
2B  inter,  ■^titter  and  unter  are  M.  H.  G.  hinder,  under,  see  413,  1,  a. 
Words  introduced  before  the  shifting  are  Germanized,  e.  g.,  plant  — » 
3)flanje  <  h.planta;  tile  —  Biegel  <  L.  tegula. 

2.  G.  T.  p  >  G.  ^\,  which  remains  initially,  after  m,  and 
when  sprung  from  pp,  but  passes  into  f  after  vowels  and  r,  1. 

Ex. :  Eng.  path  —  G.  9)fat)  ;  pea(-cock)  —  3JfflU  <  L-  pavo  ;  plight  — 
3)fli(^t;  swamp  —  ©um^jf  (?) ;  rump  —  Dium^jf;  hop,  hip  —  p^fen;  stop  — 
jlo^fen;  sleep  —  [(^lafen;  hope  —  feofen;  sharp  —  fc^arf ;  help  —  ^clfen. 

a.  Where  Eng.  and  G.  p  correspond,  they  indicate  either  L.  G.  or  other 
foreign  words  introduced  since  the  shifting,  e.  ^r. ,  pocks  —  9)ocfen;  poke 

—  ^od^en  <  L.  G.  ;  pain  —  9Jeitt  <  L.  pcena;  pilgrim  —  3)ilger  <  L. 
peregrinus  ;  pulpit  —  9^ult  <  L.  pulpitum. 

3.  G.  T.  k  >  G.  kh,  jh  (r^),  except  initial  k  and  double  k, 
which  appears  as  tf.  Eng.  has  frequently  palatalized  its  k 
into  tsh,  written  ch,  tch. 

Ex.:  Eng.  like  —  gletd);  bleak  —  t>leic^en;  knuckle  —  ^nijc^et;  knee  — 
^nie  ;  church  —  ^tr(^e ;  cook,  kitchen  —  ^ocf),  ^iic^e.  Westgerm.  kk  — 
Eng.  k  —  G.  (!  :  bake,  baker  —  baden,  S3d(fer  ;  waken  —  icetfen;  acre  — 
5lcfer;  naked  —  nacft. 

a.  The  links  between  G.  T.  z  and  G.  x  are  probably  surd  stop  +  aspirate,  surd 
stop  +  spirant,  spirant,  «.  g'.,  k  >  k  +  H  >  kkh,  an  affricate,  >  kh.  kkh  is  still  S.  G., 
tth  is  the  Irish  pronunciation  of  Eng.  th.  The  processes  are  identical  with  those  of 
I.  E.  z  >  G.  T.  X.  But  G.  X  is  a  long  consonant  or  an  affricate,  while  G.  T.  x  <  I.  E.  z 
is  a  single,  weaker  consonant.  Compare  the  present  ir»ac^en  having  a  long  and  strong 
it  with  2Ba(^t ;  ^offen,  §anf  with  the  initial  f  as  in  fur,  geuer,  i5or.  The  latter  corre- 
sponds to  G.  T.  f ,  the  former  to  G.  T.  p.    See  below. 

415.  Form.  HI.  G.  T.  x  >  G.  y.  This  shifting  only  took 
place  in  the  dentals.  G.  T.  th  >  G.  d.  Eng.  thing  —  G.  Ting ; 
that  —  tag ;  hearth  —  ^eri ;  earth  —  Srre ;  brother  —  33ruberv 

As  to  extent  and  time  of  this  shifting,  see  p.  185.  The  process  of  the  shifting  of  the 
G.  T.  surd  spirant  under  the  accent  >  G.  sonant  stop,  final  surd  stop  is  identical  with 
that  of  G.  T.  surd  spirants  unaccented  >  G.  T.  sonant  spirant  >G.  T.  sonant  stop  in 
certain  positions.    For  this  G.  T.  y  >  G.  z,  see  411. 

1.  Eng.  h,  gh,  f  correspond  to  G.  j,  ^,  f  (H),  but  Eng.  gh  is 
often  silent. 


188  PHOKOLOGY — PHONETIC   LAWS.  [416- 

Ex.:  Eng.  floor  —  G.  i^lur;  fowl  —  SJogcI;  heart  —  ^erj;  hart  —  ^irfc^ 
<  hir^,  ;  might  —  ?S)?a(^t;  fraught,  freight  —  ^rad)t. 

2.  G.  T.  hw,  Eng.  wh  —  G.  hi-  Ex.  :  Eng.  which  —  G. 
Welc^ ;  whelp  —  SBelf . 

3.  All  irregularities  must  be  explained  as  before,  either  as  due  to 
levelling  or  to  foreign  origin.    See  414,  1.    herd  —  ^erbe,  L.  G.,  but  ^irte 

—  sliep-herd  according  to  rule  ;  throne  —  S^ron  <  Gr.-L.  tlironus.     The 
relation  of  Jaufenb  to  thousand  is  not  cleared  up. 

Eng.  f  —  G.  c&,  L.  G. ,  see  493,  4.  h  before  1  and  r  has  been  lost  in  both 
languages.  Comp.  K7.vTbc,  Ags.  hl^d  —  Eng.  loud,  G.  laut  ;  <  '/krx, 
ablauts  II.     Lat.  cruor  —  Ags.  hrea  —  Eng.  raw,  G.  ro^. 

The   Interchanges    EESULTiNa   from    the   Shefting    of  G.  T. 

Spirants.     See  411. 

416.  Levelling  has  so  largely  done  away  with  the  results  of  Yerner's 
law  in  German  that  what  is  left  of  them  may  be  looked  upon  as  isolated 
cases.  They  appear  more  in  derivatives  of  the  same  stem  than  in  the 
verb-inflection. 

1.  t)  —  t  most  frequent :  leitert  —  litt,  geUtten  ;  leitett  ;  ftefcen  — 
fott,  gefotten.  f —  6:  tarf,  tiirfen,  9Zotturft  —  tarben,  t)erDer6en  (?). 
^},^—Q*  Steven  (^  silent),  3uc^t  —  geaogen,  iper^og.  f  —  r:  ^tv^ 
luft,  +  loss  —  ijerUeren  (levelling),  ioerloren  +  forlorn ;  fiefen  — 
^ur,  erioren,  +  choose,  chose,  chosen  (s  is  due  to  levelling). 

417.  Correspondences  between  Eng.  and  G.  consonants 
outside  of  the  shiftings. 

1.  Loss  of  n  before  spirants  in  G.  T.  and  later.  Before 
G.  T.  kh  as  in  fa^en  (archaic  for  fangen)  <  *fanhan  ;  tadJte  < 
*danhte,  -f  thought,  etc.  Ags.  —  Eng.  also  before  th  and  f, 
where  G.  has  preserved  n.     Compare :  tooth  —  3^^"  5  mouth 

—  5i}iunt;  but  south  —  ©iil),  of  L.  G.  origin;  soft  —  fanft,  but 
fad^t,  of  L.  G.  origin. 

2.  Eng.  wr  —  G.  r:  Eng.  write  —  retpen,  ri^en  ;  wrench  — 
renfen ;  wretch  —  3flecfe ;  wring  —  rin^en. 

3.  Eng.  w,  r,  1,  m  correspond  to  G.  tt),  r,  I,  m» 


419]  PHONOLOGY — ACCENT.  189 

4.  For  Eug.  m  —  G,  n,  see  490,  5.  For  Eng.  mb  —  G. 
mm,  see  490,  4. 

5.  Eng.  s  (originals)  —  G.  s:  house  —  JpaitS;  sink  —  ftnfen, 

a.  Eng.  X  —  Q.  Xt  d)^»  The  phonetic  value  of  the  sign  is  the  same  in 
both  languages.  The  sign  x>  borrowed  from  Latin,  stands  for  c^^,  f^,  (f(3. 
Ex.:  Eng.  wax  —  G.  wa^fen  ;  fox  —  %\xd)^  ;  axle  —  5lc^fe;  box  —  S3ud)fe 
<  Gr.  Tcvfcc;  box  —  a3u(|<5kum  <  L.  buxtis.   Eng.  s — G.  fc^,  see  490,  1. 

ACCENT. 

418.  We  are  following  still  the  traditional  method  of  treating  of  the  accent,  but,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  in  speaking  we  never  divide  the  word  into  the  syllables  or  the  sentence 
into  the  words  as  they  are  printed  or  written.  Such  a  division  is  purely  for  the  eye  and 
artificial.  We  speak  in  ''  breathgroups,''''  as  Sweet  calls  them.  Sievers  uses  "  Sprach- 
takt,'''  but  "  Sprechtakt "  would  be  better.  A  breathgroup  consists  of  a  certain  number 
of  sounds  that  can  be  pronounced  "  in  one  breath,"  as  we  say.  If  one  or  two  sounds 
have  very  strong  stress  then  the  number  of  "  syllables  "  in  the  group  is  small, because 
the  store  of  air  is  spent.  If  one  syllable  has  only  the  amount  of  air  spent  upon  a 
secondary  or  medium  accent,  then  the  number  of  syllables  can  be  larger.  Eng.  and 
G.  have  a  prevailingly  falling  rhythm,  that  is,  the  stress  falls  upon  the  initial  sounds  or 
syllable  of  a  group.  French  is  different.  Its  stress  is  very  uniform  and  the  predomi- 
nant stress  very  diflicult  to  place  in  the  group.  Excellent  authorities,  both  French 
and  Dutch,  claim  that  the  stress  lies  at  the  begining  ;  other  authorities,  just  as  high, 
that  it  lies  at  the  end  of  the  group.    The  French  groups  are  very  long. 

In  G.  and  Eng.  the  amount  of  stress  concentrated  upon  some  part  of  the  group 
varies,  else  there  would  be  a  great  monotony  as  in  French,  but  Fr.  has  a  more  varied 
intonation  or  "  tone,"  which  gives  it  an  advantage  over  Eng.  and  G. 

1.  For  very  trustworthy  division  into  breathgroups,  see  Sweet's  transcriptions  of 
Eng.,  G.  and  Fr.  in  his  "  Handbook."  For  the  whole  difficult  subject  of  the  synthesis 
of  sounds,  see  Sweet  and  also  Sievers'  Phonetik,  §  33.  Notice  that  the  principle  of 
breathgroups  is  recognized  when  we  speak  of  proclitics  and  enclitics.  All  syncope, 
elision,  contraction,  metre,  assimilation  take  place  according  to  this  principle.  When 
there  are  too  many  syllables  to  to  be  pronounced  conveniently  by  one  breath-impulse 
some  are  cut  off  and  always  according  to  a  certain  fixed  rule  varying  with  the  different 
languages.  Or  if  the  sounds  coming  together  in  a  group  are  very  different  we  assimi- 
late them  to  each  other.    This  we  call  "  ease  of  utterance  "  or  "  euphony." 

419.  We  distinguish  three  degrees  of  accent  or  "stress," 
viz.,  chief  (strong,  primary),  medium  (secondary),  and  weaky 
marked  respectively  1,  1,  1.  Thus  :  2l>fel,  ta'n!k>,  "La'nh 
ba^rfei't* 

1.  "  Weak*'  also  includes  "  unaccented,"  when  there  are  not  syllables 
enough,  e.  g.,  D'l)ftga"'Tte"'n,  5l'pfe^lbau''m.    But  when  the  word  is  very  long 


100  PHON^OLOGY— ACCENT.  [420- 

or  in  a  group  of  several  words  we  may  distinguisli  not  merely  between 
weak  and  unaccented,  but  the  variety  of  stress  can  be  further  marked  by 

figures,  e.  g.,  33ere'bfa"'mfei^t   (33c   unmarked   or   4  i  3  8) .   ©ro^^erjogtum, 

143  2       6  13245 

5lltertum^funbe»  SJierjigjd^rtger. 

Accent  in  TJncompounded  Words. 

420.  The  chief  accent  rests  in  all  uncompounded  words  on 
the  stem-syllable  (no  matter  if  suffixes  and  inflectional  end- 
ings follow).  This  syllable  is  always  the  first,  e.  g.,  35a'ter, 
ijd'terlid^,  fo'Igfam,  Sa'^erlic^leit,  ^lei'not),  fd)mei'(^eln,  Me  ipu'ngernfcen, 

1.  Exceptions:  lek  nbig  from  Ie'6cn;  words  in  -ei  and  -ier,  -ieren,  e.g., 
^altxd',  ienebei'en,  sermalebei'en,  ftubie'ren,  SSarbte'r;  lut^e'rifc^  (long  e),  mean- 
ing **  Lutheran,"  pertaining  to  that  confession,  but  Iu't^er(i)f(^»  of,  per- 
taining to  Luther;  ot^e'rif^  ;  a  few  derivatives  in -^a'ftig  (see  526, 2); 
n)al)r^a'ftig,  leib^a'ftig*  sometimes  tcilfia'ftig;  also  wa^rfd^et'nlid^,  but  see  422,2. 

2.  This  limitation  of  the  primary  accent  to  the  root  syllable  is  a  peculiarity  of  the 
Germanic  languages.  It  is  called  the  logical  or  '•  gebundene  "  accent.  The  other 
Indo-European  languages  have  the  "free"  accent,  which  can  fall  on  any  syllable. 
The  original  accent  must  have  been  preserved  in  G.  T.  until  after  the  shifting  of  I.  E. 
z  >  G.  T.  X,  because  then  the  law  of  spirants  (see  41 1)  went  into  effect. 

3.  The  Teutonic  element  of  Eng.  has,  of  course,  the  same  accent  as  G.  and  even  the 
Norman-French  element  in  Eng.  has  largely  submitted  to  the  Germanic  accent,  e.  g., 
sea'son  <  L.  satio'nem  ;  rea'son  <  L.  ratio'nem  ;  li'berty  <  L.  liberta'tem.  Compare 
the  foreign  accent  in  G.  ©aifo^n,  raifonnte'ren,  Oualttd't.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  two 
past  participles  and  the  pret.  pi.  were  not  stem-accented,  originally,  standing  in  con- 
trast with  the  pres.  and  pret.  sg.    The  accented  suffixes  we  cannot  enumerate. 

Accent  in  Compound  Words. 

421.  In  compound  words  the  chief  accent  rests  upon  the 
stem-syllable  of  the  first  component  part  if  the  second  part 
is  a  noun  (subst.  or  adj.);  on  the  stem-syllable  of  the  second 
part  if  this  is  a  verb  or  derived  from  a  verb  :  %a'\>x\ixcC^t, 
^Oi%im^^iix,  (Sc^o'Pu'nt,  lieVef^  gna'Ce^tttto^  33ei'trag,  2l'nt^ 
wort,  p'rfprec^,  U'rteil,  »o'nte^m,  3}Zi'fgun|^ ;  but  ijerfpre'(^cn,  ertei'^ 
len,  fterne'^men,  betra'gen,  »oll6ri'ngen,  mipU'ngcn,  ijoUfo'mmcn. 

1.  This  old  principle  should  be  understood  even  by  the  beginner,  though  to  him  there 
will  seem  to  be  many  exceptions,  which  an  advanced  scholar  will  generally  account 
for.    2l'ntn)ortcn/  u'vtcileu  are  no  exceptions,  because  they  are  derived  from  the  nouns 


422]  PHON^OLOGY — ACCENT.  191 

2l'ntn3crt,  U'rteil ;  nor  are  baS  SOerla'ngen,  ber  93efe'^l,  »erne'^mU(i^,  because  they  are  de- 
rived from  the  corresponding  verbs.  SSottfo'inmen  has  the  correct  accent,  because  it  la 
a  past  participle. 

The  prefixes  are  fully  treated  in  the  word-formation,  which  see. 

422.     The  more  striking  exceptions  are  as  follows  : 

1.  A  large  group  of  words  which  have  not  become  real  compounds 
but  have  sprung  from  mere  juxtaposition  in  orthography  :  T)a^  Cek^o'd^, 
vivat ;  »teUei'(6t,  SJiellie'bd^en,  ^tUtoo'^,  Bergi'^meinnic^t,  ^ansgna'rr,  ^ol^er* 
Vrie'ficr,  Sangetwei'le  (but  Sa'ngweil  after  the  genuine  compound  ^u'rjnjeil), 
3a:^r^u'nbert,  Sal^rje'^nt, breiei'nig,  Dretei'mgfett,  afler-  +  -Ite'bft,  -e'rjl,  -^ei'Ugen* 
fcflf  etc. ;  2)reifo'ni9^fejl4     Their  etymologies  are  apparent. 

2.  In  a  number  of  adjectives,  most  of  them  ending  in  -Iic^»  and  their 
derivatives,  the  chief  accent  has  shifted  from  the  original  position  to  the 
syllable  preceding  the  suflSx :  uorju'gltc^,  but  S^o'rjug;  ttortre'fflic^;  abfc^eu'Iic^, 
but  51'bft^eu;  au^bru'cflld),  but  Slu'^brucf;  bie  Sortre'fflic^feit,  bie  STu^fu'^rlic^feit, 
leibei'geit.  In  some  the  accent  is  uncertain,  but  the  chief  accent  on  the 
first  element  is  preferable,  e.  g.,  ^a'nbgreifltd^  better  than  |ianbgrei' flic^ ;  no't'= 
rcenbig,  toa'^rfc^einlid^,  ei'gentunttic^.  A  distinction  is  sometimes  made  be- 
tween ei'gentumUc^*  "  belonging  to,"  and  eigentu'mlicl,  "  peculiar  to."  Notice 
ofenba'r. 

3.  laxm^t'xii^,  full  of  pity,  ^ar-  (formerly  d^ar)  as  in  ^arfrei'tag,  Good- 
Friday,  .^arwo'c^e,  Holy  Week  (.^  a  r-, +mr€,  sorrow,  but  also  Wrtro^e), 
%XD'^nUi' 6^mm,  Corpus  Christi,  perhaps  because  the  meaning  of  the  first 
element  is  no  longer  clear,     ©ubo'jl/  ©iibfubo'jl,  norbwe'jllic^  as  in  English. 

4.  In  a  large  number  of  adjectives  in  which  the  first  element  denotes 
a  comparison  or  a  high  degree,  e.^r.,  ^mmd^o'^,  as  high  as  heaven,  et<3fa'It, 
as  cold  as  ice,  fo^Ifc^TOa'rj,  the  accent  may  stand  on  the  second  element,  but 
must  remain  on  the  first  when  the  adj.  is  inflected.  @teinret'(^,  "very 
rich,"  originally  "  rich  in  precious  stones,"  flei'nreic^,  stony,  are  sometimes 
distinguished. 

5.  aller-  is  accented  only  in  a'ller^anb  and  a'UtxUi,  doubtful  in  several, 

as  in  a'llerfeit^.  all-  is  generally  unaccented  :  allei'n,  aUmd'^'i^,  aUgemei'n, 
but  also  St'Emac^t,  Sl'ttuater,  St'Htag  and  its  derivatives,  but  also  aEtd'glid),  as 
sub  4. 

6.  Utt-*  For  this  prefix  it  is  difl&cult  to  find  a  general  rule.  The  best 
founded  and  most  practical  is  this,  based  upon  nominal  and  verbal  com- 
pounds :   Un-  compounded  with  nouns  and  adjectives  not  derived  from 


192  PHOI^OLOGY — ACCEI^T.  [423- 

verbs  attracts  fhe  chief  accent ;  if  they  are  derived  from  verbs,  then  the 
stem-syllable  retains  its  original  accent,  e,g.,  u'ltfruc^tbar,  u'nbanfbar,  u'nflar, 
U'nmenfd^,  but  ungtau'bltc^,  unfa'glic^,  unent:6e'^rlic^,  itn»era'mwortIid^,  unkgrei'flid^. 
Notice,  however,  une'nblid),  ungelcu'er  —  u'ngefieuer.     See  a. 

a.  With  regard  to  adjectives  there  is  also  a  feeling  approaching  a  principle,  that  un 
should  have  the  chief  accent,  when  a  regular  adjective  exists,  of  which  the  compound 
with  un-  denotes  the  contrary  or  negation  :  brau'(i^bar,  u'nbraudjbar,  fi'c^tfcar,  u'nfii^tbar, 
etc.    This  feeling  frequently  unsettles  the  accent,  as  un»er5ei'^Ii(^  >  u'nBerjei^Uc^. 

7.  Dkr-  varies  in  accent  in  compounds  consisting  of  three  parts.  When 
it  belongs  to  the  second  part  it  has  chief  stress,  and  the  third  part  secon- 
dary stress  :  D'krfiefer^'iicrle'^ung,  injury  of  the  upper  jawbone.  But  if  the 
second  and  third  form  one  subdivision  and  okr-  denotes  rank, then  it  has 
less  stress  than  the  third  part  and  the  second  has  chief  stress  :  Dber*" 
fc^u'lle^l^rer  =  chief  scbool-teacher ;  Dber^mu'tibfd)e'nf  ;  Dbergeri'(^ti3a^ntt)ttlt, 
chief  attorney.  But  accent  the  first  and  last  examples  differently  and 
tbey  mean  different  persons,  viz.,  D'krfc^uIIe^l^rer,  teacher  at  a  high- 
school  ;  D'bergeric()t^an'it)alt;  attorney  at  a  high-court  of  justice. 

423.  In  compound  adverbs  the  chief  accent  falls  generally 
upon  the  second  element,  if  they  are  compounded  of  a  simple 
adverb  and  a  preceding  or  follov^ing  noun  or  pronoun;  or  if 
compounded  of  two  adverbs,  e.  g,,  bergau'f,  ftroma'b,  ia^rei'n, 
ja^rau'^,  jufo'Ige,  anfta'tt,  ^inii'kr,  l^erso'r,  fofo'rt,  ta^i'n,  ba^e'r, 
iikrau'^,  iiBerei'n,  iikr^au'pt,  i?or^a'ttt)en,  ab^a'nten, 

1.  This  includes  their  derivatives  fofo'rttg,  jufrie'ben,  ijor^a'nbcn. 

Exceptions  are:  1,  compounds  which  contain  demonstrative  and  posses- 
sive pronouns,  e.g.,  be'mnad),  be'rgejlalt,  mei'netwcgen,  etc.;  a'nber-  or  a'nberiS-, 
-'|al6,  -'wartiJ,  -gejlerm  e.g.,  a'nber^wo,  a'nberfeit^,  o'kr^alb,  ^ei'mwdrt^,  »o'r^ 
XoOiXiif  »o'rgeflern,  etc.;  be'nnoc^,  e'twa;  2,  many  compounds  which  are  fused 
adverbial  phrases  and  derivatives  from  compounds.  They  retain  their 
original  word  accent,  e.g.,  a'ngefic^t^,  a'bfeit^,  na'c|mittag«,  u'bermorgen, 
ju'fe^enbi?. 

See  the  rhetorical  accent,  426. 

424.  For  the  secondary  accent  rules  can  be  given  only  in 
derivatives  and  compound  words. 

1.  Certain  nominal  suffixes  have  always  medium  stress. 


427]  PHONOLOGY— ACCEKT.  193 

a.  Substantive  suffixes:  -at,  -ut,  -oC;  -^eit,  -rid)t, -in, -feit, 
-lein,  -ling,  -niiJ,  -fat,  fdjaft,  -turn,  e,  g,,  ^pei'ma^t,  ^lei'no^t, 
(S'migfeiH,  gi'nfterni^^,  Srit'tfan,  ^o'nigtu'm,  ^ 

6.  Adjective  suffixes  :  -bar,  -^^\i,  -id)t  (?),  -ifc^  (?),  -lid),  -fam, 
-felig,  e.  g.,  MWo^Wx,  e'^ren^a^ft,  e'«i'(^t,  :^e'm'fd),  la'ngfa'm, 
trii'6|'eUig, 

2.  In  nominal  compounds  the  secondary  stress  falls  upon 
the  root-syllable  of  the  second  part,  e.  g.,  9iii'cfgra't,  ^a'^riua'ffer, 
2(u'§enfei'te,  5^i'(^terfii'ltung,  U'ngere'c^tigleit,  (e'ben0mii't)e,  ^i'lf^be? 
tii'rftig. 

3.  In  do  able  compounds  when  one  or  both  parts  are  again  compounded 
the  secondary  stress  falls  upon  the  first  or  the  only  stem-syllable  of  the 
second  part.     But  care  must  be  taken  in  properly  separating  the  parts, 

14  2       3     5 

e,  g.,  SSe'tt-ijD^^ang,  Ole'c^nung^-a'blage,  ®o'lb-be'rg»e"~'rf,  9Je'IH«^nHc^u'"l> 
t5e'lbma\f(^all;  but  ^a'nbfc^u'^^-ma^cber,  ^u'^bavrm-\)o\,  ®d)ri'ftfte'"ttev»erei^n. 
The  misplaced  medium  stress  would  give  no  meaning  at  all,  e.g., 
9Zu'Mau^m§otj»  because  ku'm^o^Ij  is  meaningless.  In  ^eu'erserfic^erung^- 
gefe^ttf(|aft  secondary  accent  on  -ft^c|-  is  only  possible,  if  there  is  such  a 
thing  as  i^eu'cr-rc'ttung^gefellfc&aft. 

4.  The  foreign  endings,  of  course,  also  cross  this  accentuation,  e.  g., 

33u'(^brucferei',  U'nterfefretaria't,  t'rrllc^teUe'ren. 

425.  Unaccented  are  all  inflectional  endings,  many  pre- 
fixes and  suffixes.     The  syllables  generally  contain  e  =  eh. 

426.  The  rhetorical  accent  can  interfere  with  the  placing 
of  the  various  degrees  of  stress,  as  in  English :  ta^  2CilD  nt(^t 
e'rjagen  fontern  oe'riagen  ;  la'xki  and  tabei'  ;  ei'nmal,  einma'L  In 
Sch.'s  WaUenstein  occurs  ^a'nn  nic^t  fein,  !ann  nt'c^t  [ein,  etc. 

427.  The  accent  in  foreign  words  is  as  a  rule  foreign.  Very  few  words 
have  taken  German  accent  when  introduced  since  the  O.  H.  G.  period. 
Substantives  in  -ie  and  -ei,  verbs  in  -ieren  retain,  for  instance,  the  prima- 
ry accent  on  these  suffixes,  e.g.,  SJJagie',  S^eologie',  2)ru(ferei',  flubie'ren, 
^antie'ren. 


194  HISTOKICAL    COMMENTARY    OJ^    ACCIDENCE.  [428- 

B.    HISTORICAL    COMMENTARY  UPON  THE 
.    ACCIDENCE. 

Comments  on  the  Noun-Declension.     1.  Vowel-Declension. 

[/See  table  on  next  page.] 

There  are  two  numbers,  three  genders.  Only  two  cases  have  now  endings,  viz., 
G.  sg.  and  D.  pi.,  but  other  parts  of  speech  still  inflect  for  the  N.  and  A.  The  number 
of  cases  was  gradually  reduced.    In  O.  H.  G.  there  is  still  an  Instrumental. 

428.  1.  There  were  two  large  systems  of  declension  according  as  the 
stem  ended  in  a  vowel  or  in  a  consonant.  Vowel  stems  ended  in  o  or  in  a. 
We  generally  count  here  also  the  i-  and  w-stems,  but  they  really  belong 
to  the  consonant  stems,  since  i  and  u  have  the  functions  of  consonants 
as  well  as  of  vowels.  Stems  in  o  {jo,  wo)  belong  to  the  I.  E.  e  —  o 
ablaut-series  and  are  always  masculine  or  neuter.  Stems  in  a  (jd,  wd) 
belong  to  the  a  —  a  series  and  are  always  feminine,  jo,  wo,  jd,  wd  are 
counted  as  separate  classes,  because  j  and  w  produced  some  peculiar 
changes,  w-stems  are  very  rare,  since  they  soon  became  i-stems,  e.g., 
8unu,  pi.  sum,  <Sb^nc.  There  is  only  one  neuter  i-stem  in  0.  H.  G.,  viz., 
meri,  ba^  9JJecr  +  L.  mare. 

2.  The  consonant  stems  end  in  n,  r,  in  a  dental  and  in  a  guttural.  The 
most  frequent  are  the  7i-stems,  to  which  went  over  a  great  many  fern, 
nouns  from  the  earliest  times,  e.g.,  zunga  +  L.  lingua  for  dingua. 

3.  J.  Grimm  fancied  that  there  was  strength  in  the  vowel-declension  and  so  called  it 
"  strong,"  the  consonant  declension  he  called  "  weak."  The  names  have  been  gener- 
ally accepted  and  though  Grimm's  reasons  are  fanciful  the  terms  have  the  advantage 
of  brevity. 

4.  The  stem  and  case  endings  have  been  very  much  reduced  according  to  certain 
principles  called  the  "  laws  of  finals  "  and  the  "  rules  of  syncope."  We  cannot  illus- 
trate these  here,  as  it  would  presuppose  a  knowledge  of  the  older  dialects.  There  was 
also  a  great  levelling  of  cases,  e.  g'.,  the  N.  sg.  fem.  (5- stem)  took  a  from  the  A.  eg.  fem. 
Its  own  vowel  had  to  go  according  to  the  law  of  finals. 

0  and  Jb-Stems. 

5.  The  nouns  sub  46,  1,  in  et,  en  (<  em  or  en),  and  er  are  <?-stems  that 
lost  the  e  of  the  plural  in  M.  H.  G.,  see  434, 3.  Masc.  in  er  <  aere  <  dH 
(originally  jo-stems)  and  those  of  the  form  vogel  retained  their  e  longest. 
The  nouns  sub  46,  2  are  the  original  jo-stems,  in  which  c  is  the  remnant 
o{  jo,  O.  H.  Q.  i.  When  this  e  was  lost,  the  nouns  were  treated  as  com- 
mon o-stems  and  now  belong  to  the  II.  strong  class  sub  50,  4.  Notice 
that  the  umlaut  of  a  jo-stem  runs  through  sing,  and  pi. ;  the  umlaut  of 


HISTORICAL   COMMENTARY   ON   ACCIDENCE.  195 


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429]  HISTORICAL   COMMENTARY    ON   ACCIDENCE.  195a 

an  t-stem  appears  now  only  in  the  plural.     Mk  is  treated  like  a  jo-stem, 
<  0.  H.  G.  chdsi  <  cdsius  <  Latin  cdseus. 

6.  The  feminines  and  neuters  in  -ni^  sub  50,  1  ended  in  M.  H.  G.  in 
-6  {-nisse),  both  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  The  ending  of  the  sing,  was  lost  in 
early  N.  H.  G.  Also  the  -e  of  the  neuters  with  ®e-  sub  50,  4  was  lost, 
and  they  really  belong  to  the  first  class,  see  46,  2.  Both  groups  are 
primitive  J6>-stems.  The  monosyllabic  neuters  of  50,  4  followed  the 
masc.  o-stems  of  50,  2,  and  therefore  cannot  have  umlaut.  In  O.  and 
M.  H.  G.  these  neuters  were  either  uninflected  or  took  the  -ir,  -er  of  56  ; 
see  431.  The  masculines  sub  50,  2,  3  are  <?-stems,  and  come  properly 
by  their  -c.     See  p.  195. 

429.     /-Stems. 

The  paradigms  of  "  kraf fc  "  and  "  gast "  show  wliicli  cases 
were  entitled  to  umlaut.  The  sg.  of  the  masc.  very  early  took 
its  Gr.  and  D.  from  the  o-stems.  The  feminine  was  made  in- 
variable in  M.  H.  G.  since  the  apparent  cause  of  umlaut  had 
disappeared  and  since  all  other  feminines,  strong  and  weak, 
did  not  vary  in  the  root- vowel. 

1.  The  old  bulk  of  the  third  class  is  made  up  of  ^-stems.  Their 
number  has  been  increased  by  u-,  o ,  jo-,  and  C(??<«-stems.  %Vi^  and  3a^n 
were  originally  cons-^tevcxs.  Comp.  Gr.  7ro(5-6f,  L.  dent-is.  They  appear 
as  t^-stems  in  Gothic,  as  ^■  stems  in  O.  H.  G.  9?ac^t  is  also  a  cons-^iem. 
Comp.  L.  noct-is.  Isolated  cases  of  its  old  inflection  are  9?a(^t<§  the  ad- 
verbial genitive  and  the  dative  plural  in  SBeibnac^ten  <  zen  wthen  nahten. 
In  9?ad)tigatt  -f-  nightingale  appears  the  genitive  of  its  ^stem  inflection ; 
compare  also  SSrautigam  +  bridegroom,  lit.  "bridesman."  (See  489,  5). 
An  isolated  w-case  is  w^anben"  <  O.  H.  G.  hantum,  dative  plural,  in  ah^' 
^anben,  lost;  ©or^anben  -l-  "on  hand."  «9?oten"  is  an  isolated  dative  plural; 
the  nominative  plural  is  obsolete.  Compare  the  Eng.  umlaut  in  mouse, 
mice  ;  louse,  lice ;  loft,  lift,  Ags.  lyft,  but  Go.  luftus ;  cow,  kine,  etc. 
3)a^  Slo§  is  O.  H.  G.  masculine  i  stem. 


196  HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   Olf  ACCIDENCE.  [430- 

430.  1.  A  small  group  of  fern,  is  interesting,  because  the  sg.  was  lev- 
elled in  favor  of  the  longer  umlaut-forms  of  the  G.  and  D.,  while  the  pi. 
became  weak  at  the  same  time.  For  instance,  bie  Snte,the  duck,  inflected 
M.  H.  G.  at  first  ant,  ente,  ente,  ant ;  pi.  ente,  ente,  enten,  ente.  Then  it 
became  ente  for  the  whole  sg.,  enten  for  the  pi.,  as  it  is  now.  Similarly 
M.  H.  G.  hluot,  now  bie  23lute  +  blowth ;  sUl,  now  bie  Saule,  column ;  'curch, 
bic  gurc^e  +  furrow,  no  umlaut  in  M.  H.  G. ;  huf,  bie  |)iiftc,  this  form 
"huft"  with  excrescent  t,  +  hip,  also  Eng.  with  umlaut,  +  Ags.  hype; 
stuot,  bie  ©tute,  +  stud.  %^xmi,  3a^re  +  tear,  SlMr(?)  +  door,  are  origi- 
nally plurals,  that  have  become  singulars.    See  Kluge. 

a.  In  this  way  doublets  could  spring  up,  e.  g.,  M.  H.  G.  sg.  stai^  stele,  stete,  stat  fur- 
nished bie  ©tatt  +  stead,  bie  ©tabt,  pi.  ©tabte,  city,  and  bie  Static,  pi.  -n,  place,  spot- 
all  4-  Eng.  stead.  Statt  also  occurs  in  the  sense  of  representation  "  in  place  of," 
anftatt,  an  jetner  Statt,  an  Slinbegftatt,  to  adopt  as  one's  own  child.  Another  such  is 
M.  H.  G./ar<— modern  bie  %<3^xi,  pi.  ga^rten,  ride,  and  bie  gi^rte,  pi.  gai)rten,  track, 
scent. 

2.  All  nouns  in  -^eit,  -felt*  -fc^aft  and  a  large  group  of  others  were  in 
M.  H.  G.  still  strong  (mostly  i-stems),  but  are  now  weak. 

3.  The  modem  fem.  nouns  in  -in,  pi.  -innen?  are  also  strong  in  0.  H.  G. 
The  suffix  -in  <  -n^d.  See  paradigm  of  mdgin.  They  had  the  fate  of 
all  fem.  nouns,  viz.,  invariable  in  the  sg.,  generally  -en  in  the  pi. 

431.    Plurals  in  -er.     See  paradigm,  p.  195. 

1.  This  sign  started  from  old  os-stems  correspondiog  to  L. 
genus,  generis ;  corpus,  corporis.  It  is  rare  in  O.  H.  G.  in  the 
sg.,  where  it  may  have  been  even  reintroduced  from  the  pi. 
In  the  G.  and  D.  pi.  -o,  -um  are  the  regular  case-endings. 
~ir  therefore  is  really  stem-ending,  but  it  was  too  convenient 
a  form  for  the  pi.  to  escape  being  used  as  a  pi.  sign.  Some 
eight  to  ten  nouns  are  thus  inflected  in  O.  H.  G.  In  M.  H.  G. 
-er  spread  and  gradually  formed  a  pi.  even  of  masculines. 

2.  The  word  (£i  is  originally  a  jo-Biom.  The  double  plurals  in  -e  and 
-er  have  sprung  up  from  the  apparent  neceiSsity  of  distinguishing  sg.  and 
pi.  of  neuters,  which  according  to  the  law  of  finals  had  to  lose  all  end- 
ings. Some  nouns  took  e,  some  er,  some  both.  In  the  latter  a  distinc- 
tion in  meaning  developed.  See  58  and  the  inflection  of  wort  and  kaJib, 
p.  195. 


434]  HISTORICAL   COMMEI^TARY  OK   ACCIDENCE.  197 

2.  Consonant  Declension. 

432.  The  masculine  and  neuter  n-stems  ended  once  in  -on, 
-Jon,  the  feminines  in  -on,  -jon.  They  correspond  to  the  L. 
homo,  hominis  ;  fulmen,  fulminis  j  ratio,  raiionis.  As  to  their 
frequency  in  the  Teutonic  languages,  see  478,  5.  The  Latin 
declension  shows  also  in  the  singular,  how  the  case-endings 
were  added  ;  in  O.  H.  G.  these  appear  still  in  the  pi.,  e.  g.,  in 
herzond  6  is  sign  of  G.  pi.  What  was  therefore  the  mere  stem- 
suffix  hjis  become  a  means  of  inflection  in  the  course  of  time. 

1.  r-stems  are  the  names  of  relationship,  35ater,  etc.  They  with  the 
dental  stems  were  forced  into  the  strong,  first  into  the  o-,  then  into  the 
i-declension  lor  lack  of  case-endings,  which  could  appear  only  in  the  G. 
and  D.  pi,  viz.,  fntero,  faterum.  Already  in  M.  H.  G.  the  umlaut 
appears  in  the  r-stems. 

4 

2.  Nouns  like  ®ute,  SOJenge,  ©xoije  end  in  %  or  in  in  O.  H.  G.:  guo^,  managi,  -in.  That 
is,  they  wereja-  &nd  Jon-stems.  They  are  all  derivatives  from  adjectives,  and  those  in 
in  are  later  than  those  in  i.  In  O.  H.  G.  they  liad  i  or  in  throug^hout  except  in  the  G. 
and  D.  pi.,  which  were  managino,  managim  respectively.  Therefore  umlaut  through- 
out. The  *n-forms  had  to  coincide  in  time  with  the  strong  feminines  in  -in{n)  at  least 
in  the  sg.  and  therefore  disappeared.  They  were  rarely  used  in  the  pi.  See  paradigm 
of  mdgin,  p.  195. 

433.  1.  All  feminines  having  now  no  inflection  in  the  sg.  and  the  old  strong  fern. 
having  taken  c(n)  in  the  plural,  it  is  difficult  to  tell  the  original  vowel-stems  from 
/? -stems.  It  would  be  correct  to  summarize  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  them, 
thus: 

All  fem.  nouns  have  become  strong  in  the  sg.  and  most  of  them  by 

far,  weak  in  the  plural. 

2^  The  fem.  a-stems  (see  paradigm)  had  already  two  cases  in  -en,  viz.,  G.  and  D.  pi., 
the  other  two  were  like  the  whole  (^g.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  then,  if  N.  and  A. 
pi.  also  took  -en  and  thus  a  sharp  coutr.'.i^t  was  formed  between  the  sg.  with  no  varia- 
tion and  the  pi.  with  -en  throughout.  By  this  levelling  and  by  the  jdn  (i  and  in)  stems 
the  loss  of  -en  in  the  sg.  of  n-stems  was  brought  about. 

434.  1.  -nin  the  D.  and  G.  sg.  is  still  frequent  in  the  16th  century  and 
is  preserved  in  certain  phrases  and  in  poetry.  Schiller's  Wallenstein's 
Lager  has  ^ir^en,  ©tu'ben,  ©onncn.    Sc ftiicmaucrt  in  bcr  Srben  (Sch.).    See  171. 

2.  The  masculines  in  -e  are  the  bulk  of  old  ^i-stams  in  M.  H.  G.  Some 
nouns  have  become  strong,  e.  g ,  5{ar,  ^al)ii  ;  others  have  become  weak, 
^irte  (originally  jo-stem),  ."pciD  (already  in  M.  H.  G.).     See  61;  518,  I.  2. 

3.  As  to  the  nouns  in  46,  t,  in  M.  H.  G.  e  was  dropped  after  r  and  1  in 


198 


HISTORICAL   COMMEI^TARY    ON   ACCIDEN^CE. 


[435- 


the  N.  sg.  and  all  through ;  after  m  and  n  only  in  the  N. 
G.  no  -e  is  the  usage.     See  paradigm  of  wgel,  p.  195. 


In  modern 


435.  1  In  O.  H.  G.  were'  only  four  neuter  n-stems,  viz.,  ora,  D^r  ;  ouga,  Sluge ; 
Jierza,  ^er^;  wanga^  SBangc.  In  M.  H.  G.  they  inclined  toward  the  strong  and  now  the 
first  three  have  joined  the  mixed  declension ;  wanga  has  become  weak  and  fem.;  namo, 
bcr  9Jame,  was  once  neuter.    Comp.  L.  nomen,  rumiinis. 

2.  Interesting  are  Me  33iene  +  bee  and  bie  Strne  +  pear,  in  which  the  inflectional  n  has 
entered  the  stem.  Compare  the  older  l/ie^  Mr.  This  entering  of  n  into  the  N.  of  mas- 
culines is  very  common  and  has  famished  the  bulk  of  strong  nouns,  1.  class  sub  1  and 
4,  46,  e.  g.,  diMen,  ©algen,  ^Pfoflcn,  Dtoggen,  ©c^abcn  (but  notice  the  isolated  „c§  tfl 
©d^abe/'  it  is  too  bad).  One  can  tell  these  by  comparing  them  with  their  Eng.  cog- 
nates +  ridge,  gallow(s),  post,  rye,  etc.,  which  show  no  n. 

3.  In  ber  §eibe  <  heidan  +  heathen  ;  Shrift  +  Christian  <  kristen  <  L.  christianus  ; 
gfjate  <  raM  and  raben  +  raven,  n  is  lost  as  if  it  had  been  regarded  an  inflectional  suffix 
and  the  nouns  became  weak. 

4.  In  bie  ^^i^fe  <fer8ana^  Ags.  fyrsn ;  ^ctte  <  ketene,  chetina  +  Eng.  chain  through 
Romance  <  V.  L.  cadina,  L.  catena ;  in  bie  ^iic^e  <  kUchene,  kuchin  <  V.  L.  cudna,  L. 
coquina  +  Eng.  kitchen  ;  in  bie  3JJette  <  mettsn,  mettina  <  V.  L.  mattina.,  L.  matuttna 
(hora)  +  Eng.  matin,  the  n  has  also  been  lost  and  the  nouns  became  weak. 


Comments  on  the  Adjective-Declension. 
436.     O.  H.  G.  paradigm  of  o-stems: 


Masc. 

Sg.  N.  BLiNT,  blint^r 

G.    BLINTES 

J),  blintemu 
A.  blintan 

Instr.   BLINTU 

PL  N.  blinte 
G.  blintero 
D.  blintem,  -^n 
A.  blinte 


Fem. 

BLINT,  blintiu,  -(i)u 
blintera,  -u 
blinteru,  -a 

BLINTA,  -e 

blinto 
blintero 
blintem,  -^n 
blinto 


Neuter, 

BLINT,  blintaz 

BLINTES 

blintemu 
BLINT,  blintaz 

BLINTU 

blintiu,  -(i)u 
blintero 
blintem,  -^n 
blintiu,  -(i)ti 


437.  The  adjective  was  once  declined  like  the  substantive,  when  both 
were  still  "nouns."  In  the  Teutonic  languages  the  so-called  "  unin- 
flected  "  forms  are  still  the  noun  inflection,  because  *Uindoz  >  blind(t)  just 
as  *dagoz  >  tag.  The  strong  declension  is  the  pDnominal  inflection,  which 
in  some  cases  coincided  with  the  gubstantiv<^  declension.  These  cases 
and  the  uninflected  forms  are  put  in  small  capitals  in  the  paradigm. 


439]  HISTOKICAL   COMMENTARY   ON   ACCIDENCE.  199 

1.  The  adjective  pronouns  led  the  way  in  this  coalescence  of  the  two  inflections  into 
the  one  strong  one.    blint^r  is  only  S.  G.,  the  uninflected  alone  occurs  in  M.  and  L.  G. 

2.  The  double  forms  Uintiu,  blintiu  are  perhaps  due  to^'o-stems  (Paul),  hlintiu  could 
give  M.  H.  G.  bUnde.  The  M.  H.  G.  forms,  both  strong  and  weak,  differ  very  little 
from  the  O.  H.  G.    In  the  neuter  pi.  blindiu  lasted  long. 

3.  In  O,  H.  G.  the  vowel-stems  are  reduced  to  o-  and  Jo-stems. 

The  jo-stems  are  still  recognizable  by  the  umlaut  which  runs  throughout,  e.g.,  '\^bn, 
6oje,  tviigc. 

4.  The  weak  declension  was  exactly  like  the  w-subst.  declension.  Now  the  sg.  A. 
fern,  and  neuter  are  like  the  sg.  N.  just  as  in  the  substantives. 

Comparison  of  Adjectives. 

438.  -er,  -ejl  represent  O.  H.  G.  -4ro,  -dro,-i8t,-6st.  The  o-forms,  are 
not  frequent  in  O.  H.  G.  i  in  ir,  ist  produced  umlaut,  wliicli  spread  in 
M.  H.  G. ,  so  that  even  then  the  umlaut  began  to  be  looked  upon  as  an 
essential  part  of  comparison. 

They  were  declined  almost  exclusively  weak  at  first,  e  of  he^^ere  (N. 
sg.)  was  lost  just  like  the  e  of  wgele,  see  p.  195. 

1.  It  is  generally  stated  that  -ero,  -oro  come  from  an  I.  E.  sufiix  -jans,  but  how  has 
never  been  made  clear.  It  is  probable  that,  since  -oro  was  at  first  attached  only  to 
o-stems,  the  o  is  secondary  and  due  to  the  stem-suffix.  The  comparative-suffix  seems 
to  have  been  -is  and  to  this  -t-  was  added  for  the  superlative.  But  -t-  is  probably 
identical  with  the  ordinal-sufllx. 

Irregular  Comparison. 

439.  beffer  <  O.  H.  G.  be^pro,  Ags.  betera,  Beft  <  be^^ist,  Ags. 
betst ;  me^r  <  O.  H.  G.  mero^  Go.  maiza,  metft  <  O.  H.  G.  meist, 
Go.  maists  ;  minter  <  O.H.  G.  minniro,  M.  H.  G.  minre^  mtntejl 
represents  O.  H.  G.  minnist,  M.  H.  G.  minnest. 

1.  All  contain  the  regular  suffixes,  fceffer  comes  perhaps  from  a  stem 
*b'ad.  ba§  is  the  regularly  developed  comparative  adverb.  Comp. 
M.  H.  G.  min,  me,  Ags.  min,  md.  r  disappeared  according  to  the  law  of 
finals.  Whether  me^r  is  related  to  L.  magis,  major,  is  doubtful,  ntinber 
has  excrescent  b.  The  O.  H.  G.  nn  shows  that  L.  minus  is  its  cognate. 
minbejl  is  a  N.  H.  G.  superlative  <  ntinber. 

2.  Srft  is  <  O.  H.  G.  iristo,  comparative  iriro.  (S^e  is  a  modem  formation  for  the 
positive,  +  Eng.  ere,  erst.  Se(jt  comes  from  a  stem  *lat,  from  which  Eng.  late,  later  ; 
last  —  latest;  also  +  to  le't  =  ''hinder."  la%,  tired.  S^ei}t<lezt,  laiii)st,  just  as  Eng, 
last  <  latest.    See  Kluge.    giirft  +  first  is  <  O.  H.  G.furi  {a,dveT})),furiro,/uristo. 


200 


HISTORICAL   COMMEXTAEY   ON   ACCIDENCE. 


[440- 


Cominents  on  the  Pronouns. 
440.     Personal  Pronouns. 

M.  H.  G.    Common  gender. 


I. 

II. 

III.  refl. 

Sg,  N. 

ich 

du,  du 

G. 

c  min 

din 

sin 

1  (mines,  -er) 

diner 

siner 

D. 

mir 

dir 

(im) 

A. 

mich 

dich 

sich 

PL  N. 

wir 

ir 

G. 

unser 

iuwer 

(ir) 

D. 

nns 

iu 

(in) 

A. 

runs 
1  unsich 

( inch 

sich 

(iuwih 

III.  person  with  form  for  each  gender. 

Sg.  N. 

er 

siu 

e? 

G. 

sin,  es 

ir,  ir^ 

es,  sin 

D. 

im(e) 

ir,  ire 

im(e) 

A. 

in,  in  en 
O.H.  G.  inan 

sie 

e^ 

N.,A. 

si(e) 

si(e),  si 

siu 

G. 

ir  (0. 

H.  G.  iro) 

D. 

in(0. 

H.  G.  im) 

1.  The  pronouns  of  common  gender  come  from  various  stems,  which  as  well  as  the 
inflections  are  difficult  to  analyze,  er,  fie,  eg  come  from  two  stems  i(<€i  —ot)  and 
^d.    For  e§  <  €^  +  Goth,  ita,  see  490,  2.    Compare  L.  is,  ea,  id. 

2.  The  pronouns  were  extended  by  two  endings,  -cr  and  -en,  in  N.  H.  G. 
The  G.  sg.  metner,  etc.,  are  no  doubt  due  to  the  influence  of  the  strong 
adjective  declension  and  to  unfer,  eucr  (G.  pi.).  The  same  endings  appear 
in  bercr  and  benen,  but  these  are  later,  since  both  minefi  and  miner  appear 
in  M.  H.  G.  sporadically.  iucJi,  originally  A.,  spread  over  D.  like  the 
reflexive  "sich."  sin  crowded  out  es  (G.  masc.)  already  in  0.  H.  G.  and  es 
(neuter  G.)  has  general  force,  not  referring  to  a  single  object.  N.  H.  G. 
Si)ro  is  probably  an  analogous  form  with  "dero"  before  a  title  and  not 


443]  HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   Olf  ACCIDENCE.  201 

the  old  fem.  G.  sg.  or  pi.  iro  as  generally  stated,  ir  (G.  pi.)  was  still  the 
rule  in  the  16th  century  and  as  G.  sg.  still  in  the  17th.  bciner  was  estab- 
lished later  than  metner  and  feiner,  which  were  the  rule  early  in  the  IVth 
century. 

441.  Possessive  Pronouns. 

a.  The  possessive  pronouus  are  of  the  same  origin  as  the  genitives  mein,  bctn,  fein,  etc., 
of  the  personal  pronoun.  They  are  most  likely  not  derived  from  the  latter  as  is  gener- 
ally stated,  but  rather  the  reverse.  The  adjective  suffix  -in  <  in  seems  to  lie  in  them 
attached  to  the  primitive  stems  *?na,  *twa,  *swa,  which  appear  in  all  Indo-European 
languages.    Comp.  L.  meus^  tuus,  suus,  mei,  tui,  suL 

1.  In  O.  H.  G.  the  possessives  were  declined  strong  even  when  preceded 
by  the  definite  article.  In  M.  H.  G.  the  weak  declension  came  into  use. 
The  long  forms  in  -ig  sprang  up  late  in  the  16th  century. 

2.  3^r,  her,  their,  however,  is  derived  from  the  G.  of  the  personal  pro- 
noun of  the  third  person.  It  sprang  up  in  the  13th  century  and  was 
fully  established  in  the  15th. 

442.  The  Demonstkative  Pronoun. 

O.  H.  G.  Masc.  Fem.  Neut. 

Sg.  N.  d^  (thie),  der  diu  da^ 

G.  des  dera,  -o  des 

D.  demu,  M.  H.  G.  dem(e)  deru,  M.  H.  G.  der(e)  demu 

A.  den  d^,  dea,  dia  da^ 

In.  diu  diu 

PL  N.,  A.  de,  dea,  dia  deo,  dio  dei,  diu 

^ — — — - — ■ ^ . ' 

G.  dero 

D.  d^m 

a.  Sievers  assumes  two  I.-E.  stems,  to,  tjo  ;  Paul  only  one,  to,  explaining  i  as  due 
to  the  diphthongization  of  §  >  ea  >  ia.  dS  without  r  is  the  older  ;  r  is  the  same  as  in 
wer,  er,  +  L.  quis,  is.  to  is  treated  as  o  and  i  stem.  dS  <  thai,  dei  is  probably  dual 
like  zwei.  O.  H.  G.  daz  <  G.  T.  thata,  in  which  final  t  is  a  particle.  The  Tnstr.  exists 
still  in  the  isolated  „befto/'  +  the  In  "  the  more,"  <  desde  <  des-diu.    des  is  the  Gen. 

443. 


O 

.  H.  G. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Sg.  N.  dese,  dgsg-r 

deisu,  diusiu 

diz,  dSzzi,  di^ 

G.  desses 

dSsera,  derra 

dgsses 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

dese  is  composed  like  a  stron;?  adjective  of  de  and  a  particle  sa.    In  the  G.  sg.  both 
elements  are  inflected,  generally  only  the  second,    di^  has  in  ^  the  neuter  pronominal 


202  HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   ON   ACCIDENCE.  [444- 

Buffix,  but  nothing  else  in  it  is  explained.  In  M.  H.  G.  the  forms  heginning  with  dl' 
prevailed,  always  short.  bic3  goes  back  to  O.  H.  G.  di^,  but  biefeS  first  appear*  as  late 
as  the  15th  century.    Hans  Sachs  still  spells  diz,  ditz. 

1.  jcn-er  seems  to  contain  the  same  suffix  -in  as  the  possessive  pronouns. 
Its  stem  is  limited  to  the  Teutonic  languages. 

The  origin  of  «felb"  +  self  is  dark. 

fold^  +  such  is  compounded  of  swa,  so,  fo  and  lich,  like,  -Wij. 

2.  The  pronominal  stem  hi,  which  appears  also  in  the  Eng,  pronoun  he, 
his,  him,  her,  is  hidden  in  "^cutc  <  Mudagu  (Instr.),  l^euer  <  Mujaru,  ^cint 
(now  dialectic)  <  M.  H.  G.  Iiinet  <  hmaht,  +  to-night.  It  occurs  also 
in  the  adverbs  ^n,  l^er,  +  hi-ther.    Compare  L.  hi-c,  haer-c,  ho-c. 

444.     Interrogative  Pronouns. 


0.  H.  G.    Masc.  and  Fem. 

Neuter. 

M.  H.  G. 

N.  huer 

hua^ 

wer,  wa^ 

G.           hues 

wes 

D.           huemu 

•wem(e) 

A.  huen(aii) 

liTiaj 

wen,  wa^ 

Instr. 

huin, 

hiu 

wiu 

a.  From  the  stem  -ko  with  k'  that  was  labialized  in  Latin  and  the  Teutonic  languages. 
Compare  L.  gtiis—guid,  quod,  which  perhaps  requires  another  I.  E.  stem  ki.  A.  huenan 
is  only  O.  H.  G.  and  the  ending  is  taken  from  the  adjective  declension. 

1.  wic  <  0.  H.  G.  wiu,  huiu,  +  why,  how,  comes  from  this  stem,  G.  T. 
hwd-,  I.  E.  ho-,  +  Go.  hwaiway  Ags.  hu.  But  the  phonetic  relation  be- 
tween xoxt,  why  and  how  is  not  yet  cleared  up. 

Eng.  whom  is  really  the  D.  +  t»ent,  but  served  as  D.  and  A  very 
early. 

2.  weld^  <  O.  H.  G.  huelih,  welich,  +  which  <  Ags.  hwylc,  lit.  "how 
or  what  like." 

3.  roebcr  +  whether,  now  only  conjunction,  is  still  a  pronoun  in  the 
16th  century.  Formed,  with  the  comparative  suffix  -ber  <  thar  <  tero, 
from  ko-  the  interrogative  stem.     Comp.  Gr.  KorepoQ,  archaic  form. 

445.    Indefinite  Pronouns. 

1.  jebcr,  jcmanb,  nicmanb  contain  the  prefix  io,  i>,  je,  +  ever,  io  gave  the 
original  interrogative  weder  indefinite  force,  jeber  <  ieweder  <  ioiceder. 
Like  "  either,"  it  meant  "one  of  two,"  "  which  ever  you  please."    The  end- 


446] 


HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   OJT  ACCIDENCE. 


203 


ing  -er  wae  confounded  with  the  adjective-endings  -er,  -e,  -e^  and  the 
full  forms  jeberet/  jebere,  jebereg  are  preserved,  though  rare,  down  to  the 
17th  century. 

jemanb  is  compounded  of  ie — man,  niemanb  of  ni — ie — man.  As  to  br 
see  491,  2. 

jeglic^  <  iegelih  <  io — {/ilih,  "  ever  (the)  like.*' 

2.  jebtDcber  <  ie — deweder,  "any  one  of  two."  It  contains  an  element 
de,  which  is  also  in  etUc^,  etrt>a^.  Its  origin  is  unknown.  !ein  <  dechein. 
This  also  contains  an  obscure  element  dechr'. 

3.  anber  +  other  is  a  comparative  like  tDebetf  <  O.  H.  G.  andar  <  *aii 
— tero. 


446. 


Gommeiits  on  the  Conjugation. 

Strong  Verbs. 


0.  H.  G. 

M.  H. 

G. 

Pres.  ind. 

Sub^. 

Sg.  1.  nimu 

neme 

nime 

neme 

2.  mmis(t) 

nemes 

nimest 

nemest 

3.  nimit 

neme 

nimet 

nem© 

PL  1.  nemam(^s) 

nem^m(es) 

nemen 

nemen 

2.  nemat,  et 

nemet 

nemet 

ngmet 

3.  nemant 

nemen 

nement 

nemen 

Pret.  ind. 

Subj. 

Sg.  1.  nam 

ndmi 

nam 

nseme 

2.  nami 

namis 

nseme 

nsemest 

3.  nam 

ndmi 

nam 

nseme 

PL  1.  n4mum(es) 

namim(es) 

ndmen 

nsemen 

2.  namut 

ndmit 

namet 

nsemet 

3.  namun 

ndmin 

ndmen 

nsemen 

Imp. 

2.  sg.  nim 

Inf.  neman 

nim 

nemen 

1.  pL  nemam(^s) 

G^er-  ze  nemanne 

nemen 

ze  nemenne 

2.  pL  nemat 

Pres. part,  nemanti 

nemet 

nemende 

Past  part,  ginoman 

genomeu 

204 


HISTORICAL   COMMENTARY   OX   ACCIDENCE. 


[447- 


447 

Weak  Verbs. 

0.  H.  G. 

M. 

H,G. 

Irrvp.  2.  sg. 

neri 

salbo 

ner 

salbe 

Pret. 

nerita 

salbota,  dahta 

nerte 

salbete 

Inf. 

neren 

salbon 

nem 

salben 

Part. 

nerenti 

salbonti 

nemde 

salbende 

ginerit 

gisalbot 

genert 

gesalbet 

a.  Grimm  called  a  verb  "  strong"  because  it  would  form  its  preterit  of  its  own  re- 
sources, without  the  aid  of  composition.  We  retain  the  terms  "  stroug  "  and  "  weak  " 
Bimply  because  they  are  generally  used. 

448.  Tenses. 

There  are  only  two  simple  tenses  left  in  the  Germanic  languages,  viz., 
the  present  and  the  " preterit"  which  corresponds  in  form  to  the  "per- 
fect" of  the  other  I.  E.  languages.  What  we  call  "the  subjunctive"  is 
in  form  the  optative,  the  suffix  for  which  was  ie — i,  in  an  o-verb  of  course 
-oi.     Compare  the  Greek  <j)Epoi—Qo.  nimai. 

449.  Personal  suffixes.  There  were  two  classes.  The  prima- 
ry were  added  to  the  present  and  the  subjunctive  mood,  the 
secondary  to  the  preterit  and  the  optative  mood.  The  O.  H. 
G.  1.  pi.  in  -mes  is  quite  a  mystery.  The  2.  p.  sg.  present  in 
st,  prevailing  in  O.  H.  G.,  has  sprung  from  analogy  with 
nimis — tu  and  the  pret.-present  verbs,  e.g.,  canst  ^^bistu" 
occurs  in  the  very  oldest  sources. 

1.  The  1.  p.  sg.  pres.  is  either  u  <  o  in  nearly  all  verbs  or  m  <  mi  in  the 
few  mi-verha,  e.g.,  nimu  but  tuom.  Peculiar  is  that  the  2.  p.  pret.  subj.  has 
entered  the  pret.  ind.  The  regular  ending  was  -t,  as  still  found  in  Gothic 
and  in  the  pret. -pres.  verbs,  e.g.,  Go.  namt,  G.  Dii  tnilt,  fott  (now  archaic). 

An-e  in  the  1.  and  3.  p.  sg.  pret.  and  in  the  2.  p.  sg.  imper.,  due  to  analogy,  sprang  up 
in  late  M.  H.  G.,  spread  in  early  N.H.  G.,  became  rare  in  18th  century,  and  is  now  archaic. 

2.  These  suffixes  were  either  attached  to  the  bare  stem  as  in  the  w /-verbs 
or  by  means  of  a  connecting  vowel  generally  called  "  thematic  vowel,"  which 
was  I.  E.  o — e  for  all  strong  verbs,  and  in  0.  H.  G.  i,  e  or  6  for  weak  verbs. 

450.  Imperative.  The  2.  p.  sg.  has  the  syncopated  form  of  short- 
stenuned  verbs  which  once  ended  in  -e  :    neme  >  nimi  >  nim.       In 


453]  HISTORICAL   COMMEKTARY   OK   ACCIDENCE.  205 

Weak  verbs  the  ending  is  amalgamated  with  the  connecting  vowel  : 
neri,  salbo.  neri  should  become  ner,  but  there  was  levelling  in  favor  of 
the  long-stemmed  verb.     The  1.  p.  pi.  is  exhortative.     It  is  indicative. 

451.  Infinitive,  This  is  a  verbal  noun  ending  in  -no-.  Perhaps  an 
isolated  accusative. 

452.  Gerundive.  It  is  confounded  with  the  infinitive  with  which  it 
has  originally  nothing  to  do.  Suffix  is  -nj-  ;  hence  the  double  n.  It 
was  inflected  like  any  noun.  Since  in  modern  German  it  has  taken  a 
construction  similar  to  the  Gerundive  of  Latin  grammar,  we  have  called 
it  "Gerundive."  The  form  with  -d  occurs,  according  to  Weinhold,  as 
early  as  the  12th  century  in  Alemanic.  zi  tuonne  and  zi  tuonde  were  con- 
founded. In  the  latter  form  lies  the  modern  construction,  as  in  eine  ju 
kac^tetibe  SSorfc^rift. 

453.  Participles.  The  suffix  of  the  present  participle  was  -nt,  a 
consonant  stem,  but  afterwards  a  jo-,  jd-siem,  hence  nemanti.  For  the 
nouns  Sreunb,  %dnh,  ^eiknb,  see  505. 

i.  The  passive  participles  are  two  verbal  adjectives  formed  by  means 
of  -to-  and  -no-  (both  accented)  from  the  verb-stems,  not  from  the 
tense-stems.  They  were  at  first  not  limited,  -to-  to  weak  verbs  and 
-n6-  to  the  strong.  Compare  771188-  (the  modern  prefix  mi§ — t-  Eng. 
mis-)  <  misto  <  *mith — to  the  weak  stem  of  the  verb  metben,  mieb, 
gemteben^  to  avoid :  getDi^  <  gawiss  <  *-wiUa  <  '^widto,  from  the  stem 
of  weip,  wiffen;  alt  -i-  old  <  al — to-  from  the  strong  verb  (Go.)  alan  +  L. 
alere,  to  nourish.  Besides  in  these  and  other  isolated  forms  -to-  occurs 
in  the  past  part,  of  the  pret.-pres.  verbs  and  in  a  class  that  had  no  con- 
necting vowel,  e.g.,  ge^rac^t,  gebac^t,  etc.,  see  454, 3.  Compare  Gr.  -roc,  L. 
^tu8.  -no  is  rare  in  non-Germanic  languages ;  compare  L.  dignus,  plenus 
+  full. 

2.  The  prefix  ge-.  It  is  the  inseparable  prefix  ge-  and  belonged  at  first 
only  to  the  participle  of  verbs  compounded  with  it.  But  in  simple  verbs 
it  could  give  the  present  the  force  of  the  future,  it  would  empliasize  the 
preterit  or  give  it  the  force  of  the  pluperfect  and  give  the  infinitive  de- 
pendent upon  a  modal  auxiliary  the  force  of  the  perfect  inf.  Thus  also 
n  the  participle  it  emphasized  the  completion  of  an  act.  Some  parti- 
ciples very  rarely  took  ge-  in  M.  H.  G.,  e.g.,  komen,  worden,  funden, 
Id^en,  fre^^en,  hei^en.  „®nabe  funben"  is  common  in  the  Bible.  The 
Patriarch  in  Lessing's  Nathan  uses  it.     Compare  Eng.  yclad,  yclept. 


S06  HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   01^  ACCIDEN^CE.  [454- 

454.  Weak  Verbs. 

1.  The  connecting  vowels  are  i(j),  6,  0  in  O.  H.  G.  Tlie  original  type  of  connecting 
vowel  is  supposed  to  have  been  ojo — ejo,  but  the  reduction  to  6  (Go.  ai)  and  6  is  by  no 
means  clear.  The  large  majority  have  i(j)  <  *^'o,  but  a  not  small  number  both  of  orig- 
inally strong  and  weak  verbs  have  none.  The  preterit  is  formed  by  the  suffix  -ta,  now 
-te.  Its  origin  is  by  no  means  settled.  Paul  reconstructs  two  suffixes,  viz.,  -dha 
and  -ta.  The  Old  Saxon  forms  sagda,  habda,  libda  with  corresponding  participles  can 
only  come  from  Vdhd,  from  whic?^  Is  also  t^un  +  to  do.  The  majority  of  verbs  take 
I.  E.  -ta,>  tha  >da>ia  according  to  Verner's  Law.    See  411. 

2.  We  distinguish  originally  three  classes  :  1,  no  connecting  vowel  in 
the  preterit ;  2,  connecting  vowel  and  short  stem  ;  3,  connecting  vowel 
and  long  stem. 

3.  There  was  very  early  (in  0.  H.  G.)  a  levelling  between  the  2.  and  3. 
classes,  because  in  short-stemmed  verbs,  in  which  no  syncope  could  take 
place,  j(i)  caused  doubling  of  the  final  consonant.  This  made  them  appear 
like  long-stemmed  ones.  The  first  class  has  now  been  reduced  to  the 
three  verbs  benfen,  biinfcn,  and  l&ringen,  see  119,  2.  Compare  O.  H.  G. 
denken,  ddhta,  giddht ;  dunken,  dHhta,  giduM  ;  hringen,  brcihta,  gibrdht 
LoDg  a  <  a  nasalized  <  an.  braud^enf  fiird^ten,  fuc^cn,  luirfcn  (<  itjiirfen) 
belonged  here  also.  Eng.  buy,  bought,  bought ;  work,  wrought,  wrought 
show  still  their  origin  in  the  gh  before  t.  S3rtngen  is  of  course  a  strong  verb 
and  so  are  brukan  (II.),  suochen  (VI.)  as  their  ablaut  shows,  ^cginncn  be- 
longed here  perhaps  too,  since  we  find  still  in  dialect  f^egonnte  (F.  3176). 
That  these  verbs  never  had  any  connecting  vowel  is  shown  :  1,  by  the 
change  of  the  guttural  stop  >  guttural  spirant  which  takes  place  on^y 
directly  before  t  ;  2,  by  the  umlaut  in  the  pret.  subj.  For  the  M.  H.  G. 
forms  are  denken^  ddhte — dcehte,  geddht ;  dunken,  dHhte — diiihte,  gedHht ; 
hingen,  brdhte — hrcehte,  {ge)brdM.  biinfen,  biinftc,  gebunft  begins  as  early 
as  M.  H.  G.  The  present  mir  hau^t  is  a  N.  H.  G.  formation  from  the 
preterit.  That  furd^tcn  once  belonged  here  is  shown  by  the  archaic 
form  „furrf)tc,"  e.g.,  1)er  warfVc  ©diwabe  forc^t^  ftc^  nit  (U.).  Lessing  has 
wfurc^te,"  <  O.  H.  G.  furhten  (vurJiten),  for{a)hta,  gifor{a)ht  (the  a  is  a 
secondary  dev'elopment). 

455.  The  verbs  in  119,  1,  are  the  only  verbs  that  still  show 
the  difference  between  the  long  and  short-stemmed  of  the  i(j)- 
class.  They  formed  their  principal  parts  in  O.  H.  G. :  brennen, 
hranta,  gihrennit — gibranter  ;  nennen,  nanta,  ginennil — ginanter. 
According  to  syncope  *brannitay  *gibranniter  had  to  become 
branta,  gibranter.     The  i  that  produced  umlaut  in  brenncii 


457]  HISTORICAL   COMMENTARY  ON"  ACCIDEI^CE.  207 

gibrennit  had  disappeared  from  hrannita,  gihranniter  and 
therefore  there  is  no  umlaut  in  brannte,  gebrannt.  The  parti- 
ciple with  umlaut  was  levelled  away. 

1.  The  umlaut  in  the  modern  pret.  subj.  is  due  to  analogy  with  5rd(|tc, 
biirfte,  etc.  It  is  a  Middle  German  feature.  Even  preterits  indicative 
with  e  of  rennen,  brennen,  nennen  occur  now  and  then  in  the  classics.  The 
levelling  into  fenben,  [enbete,  gefenbet;  wenben,  wenbete,  gewenbet  is  not  uncom- 
mon. Schiller  has  ♦  .  .  bie  ®renje,  jdo  er  ba^  son  ben  (Sc^weben  erobertc 
S^am  berennte. 

2.  All  other  differences  were  levelled  away,  e.g.,  M.  H.  G.  hc^ren,  Jiorte, 
gehoeret — gehort,  becomes  prcn,  prte,  ge^ort;  furd)ten,  fur(J)tetc,  gefiirc^tet ; 
l>ren(^en,  fprengte,  gcfprengt;  fuflen,  fiillte,  gefuttt;  beden,  berfte,  gebecft. 

3.  A  few  isolated  participles  are  left,  such  as  getlalt  (ungejlalt),  getroj! 
(adverb),  and  others. 

Strong  Verbs. 

456.  The  Present. 

1.  The  interchanges  of  e  —  i ;  ie  —  eu ;  no  umlaut— umlaut  in  the  present  and  the  um- 
laut in  the  pret.  subj.  are  accounted  for  in  the  phonology.  See  403.  See  also  under 
each  class  of  verbs. 

2.  The  first  p.  sg.  has  followed  the  analogy  of  the  forms  that  have  e 
and  of  the  verbs  of  VI.  which  had  of  course  no  umlaut  in  1.  p.  sg.,  e.g., 
O.  H.  G.  faru,  ferist,  ferit.  The  contrast  is  now  for  all  classes  between 
2.  and  3.  pers.  sg.  with  i,  a,  etc. :  bu  fa^rft,  er  fci^rt,  bu  gtbj^,  er  gibt  and 
all  the  other  forms  with  a  and  c  :  fa^ren,  id^  fa^re,  tt)ir  fatjren,  i^r  fa'^rt,  fie 
fa^ren;  {\eben,  tc^  gebe,  tt>ir  geben,  i^r  gebet,  fie  geben.  Formerly  the  contrast 
was  between  the  whole  pres.  sg.  and  the  whole  pi.  for  CI.  III.,  IV.,  V. 
See  paradigm,  p.  203. 

457.  Of  the  numerous  formations  of  the  present-stem  the  following 
ire  still  to  be  recognized  by  certain  peculiarities  : 

1.  I,  E.  jo—je,  L.  capio,  fugio,  German  bitten  V.  <  hidjan  <  ^bedjan 
according  to  the  interchange  of  e— i,  but  the  participle  gebeten  <  bedan-. 
Exactly  i'ke  this  ft^en  V.,  liegen  V,,  but  gefeffen,  gelegen.  Also  beben  VI.  and 
fcbttJoren  "V  i.,  e.g.,  fcbworen  <  sicern  <  swerien  <  swarjan,  swor,  swaran-. 
Henc3  i,  or  in  the  last  two,  a  umlaut  through  the  whole  present.  This 
was  once  a  large  group.  Here  belonged  for  instance  the  class  benfen, 
bai)te,  see  454,  3,  +  Go.  thankjan. 

2.  The  suffix  -n  {~nw,  nj),  v/hich  also  entered  the  pret.  if  it  was 
within  the  root,     fragen  <  *frehnan,  Ags.  frignan,  but  already  weak  in 


208  HISTORICAL  COMMEISTTARY   OK    ACCIDEIfCE.  [458- 

O.  H.  Gt.  criDct^nen  <  an  O.  H.  G.  {gi)-wahhinnen,  nn  <  nj.  "^eginncitr 
rinnen  and  others  have  nw.  Go.  standan,  German  ftunb,  jlanb — gei^anbcn; 
(QC^en),  gteng,  gegangen,  fangen,  etc.     Compare  L.  tundo,  tutudi. 

3.  Reduplication,  corresponding  to  Gr.  Ti^rjfiL  and  ntrrru,  is  preserved 
in  kben  <  biben,  to  quake,  and  jittern,  to  tremble,  both  weak  (Kluge). 

4.  sk,  corresponding  to  L.  -sco,  in  brefc^en,  forfd^en,  toitnfc^en,  tt)af(|en  (see 
Kluge's  Diet,  for  these  words). 

458.  The  Preterit. 

1.  Reduplicalion.  There  are  traces  of  ablaut  without  reduplication,  but  erenerally  the 
two  occurred  together.  In  Gothic  are  still  verbs  which  have  both.  The  reduplication 
consisted  in  the  repetiton  of  the  initial  consonant  +  e  or  if  beginning  with  a  vowel  by 
prefixing  'e,  e.g..  Go.  haldan,  haihoLd  (ai  =  6  in  Gothic),  aukan,  aiauk.  O.  H.  G.  has 
only  one  clear  example,  viz.,  fe^a,  iii^  t^at.  Compare  L.  fallo — fefdli,  tango  —  tetigi. 
How  the  reduplicating  syllable  was  lost,  how  it  coalesced  with  the  stem  is  not  yet 
clear.  Our  VII.  class  includes  the  reduplicating  verbs,  that  is,  those  still  reduplicat- 
ing in  Gothic,  though  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  Gothic  has  preserved  the  original 
method  of  reduplication. 

2.  In  0.  H.  G.  the  stem-vowel  of  the  reduplicated  preterit  appears  as  e 
and  eo,  e.g.,  rdtan  ret,  fdhan  fmg  and  fSng  (fahan  <  fanhan).  e  by 
diphthongization  >  ea  >  ia  >  le ;  eo  >  io  >  ie,  so  that  already  in  M. 
H.  G.  we  have  ie  as  the  regular  vowel  of  the  preterit.  Examples ; 
ato^an  —  steo^,  stio^,  M.  H.  G.  atiez — gisto^an  ;  hloufan  —  hleof,  hliofy 
M.  H.  G.  lief — gihloufan,  N.  H.  G.  laufen — lief — gtlaufen  ;  faUaii — fel 
>  feed  >  fial  >jiel  (M.  H.  Q.)  —  gifallan,  N.  H.  G.  fallen  — ftel—gcfaflen; 
hei^^an  —  /t^,  heaf,  hia^,  M.  H.  G.  hie^ — glhei^^an,  N.  H.  G.  ^cipen  —  ^ie§ 
—  ge^ei^en. 

3.  However  the  vowel  appearing  in  the  pret,  may  have  arisen,  it  is  not  ablaut.  It 
never  appears  in  derivatives  as  all  the  ablaut  vowels  do.  Unterfi^ieb  is  only  a  seeming 
exception,  since  it  stands  for  the  older  „Unterfc^etb,"  which  was  crowded  out,  because 
the  verb  went  over  into  the  I.  CI. 

The  Ablaut-series  and  the  Verb-classes. 

459.  No  one  verb  shows  all  the  four  stages  of  ablaut  as  they  have 
))een  determined.  See  394.  The  first  five  classes  belong  to  the  origi 
nal  I.  E.  e — o  ssries,  the  VI.  is  the  I.  E.  a  —  a,  G.  T.  a  —  o  series.  To 
the  latter  series  belong  also  the  reduplicating  verbs  which  have  in  the 
stem  a  +  liquid  +  cons,  (halten) ;  ai  (ei) ;  and  au,  o. 


460]  HISTORICAL   COMMEKTARY   ON    ACCIDENCE.  209 

In  tlie  first  group  e  corresponds  to  G.  T.  e,  i ;  o  to  G.  T.  a  in  the  pret 
sg.,  for  in  I.  and  II.  we  must  count  i  and  u  as  consonants.  The  five 
classes  can  be  grouped  as  follows  : 

1.  a.  I.,  II.:  i  and  u  as  consonants  in  the  pres.  and  pret.  sg".;  a* 
vowels  in  the  pret.  pi.  and  part.,  viz., 

e  -  i  +  cons.         a  -  i  +  cons.         i  +  cons, 
e  -  u  +  cons.        a  -  u  +  cons.        u  +  cons. 
The  stem  ends  in  i  or  u  +  cons. 

&.  III.,  IV.,  V.  have  in  the  present  e  -  i  +  liquid  or  nasal  +  cons.  (III.); 
e  +  liquid  or  nasal  (IV.),  or  e  +  cons.  (V.).  In  the  pret.  sg.  they  have  a. 
The  stem  ends  in  a  liquid  or  nasal  +  cons.  (III.) ;  in  a  single  liquid  ot 
nasal  (IV.)  ;  in  a  single  cons,  not  liquid  or  nasal  (V.). 

3.  I.,  II.,  III.  have  the  weakest  stages  of  ablaut  in  the  pret.  pi.  and 
participle ;  IV.  in  the  part,  only  ;  V.  in  neither.  IV.  and  V.  have  a  long 
vowel  in  the  pret.  pi.,  that  is  very  difl&cult  to  account  for.  0.  H.  G.  a 
corresponds  to  G.  T.  e,  the  length  of  which  may  be  due  to  compensation, 
^y-y  *gegbum  >  gebum.     See  458,  1. 

3.  A  third  grouping  is  possible  according  to  the  quality  of  the  vowel, 
viz.,  I.  to  V.  run  in  a  system  of  unrounded  vowels,  VI.  runs  in  a  system 
of  rounded. 

a.  u  (o)  in  11.  is  either  consonant  in  the  accented  stage  (pres.  and  pret.  eg.)  or  vowel 
In  the  unaccented  stage  (pret.  pi.  and  past  part.),  u  before  r,  1,  m,  n  in  the  unaccented 
stage  is  also  due  to  their  double  nature,  according  to  which  they  serve  as  vowels  or  as 
consonants.  Nasalis  and  Liquida  sonans  (Brugman)  are  represented  in  all  the  Teu- 
tonic dialects  by  ur,  ul,  um,  un,  a  characteristic  of  the  whole  group. 

4.  VI.  stands  alone  and  contains  rounded  vowels.  Its  a  cannot  have 
been  originally  the  same  as  the  a  of  the  other  series.  It  was  probably 
more  o  than  a. 

Levelling  in  the  Preterit. 

460.  Tracing  the  classes  from  O.  H.  G.  to  N.  H.  G.  we  have  to  notice 
one  great  levelling  in  all  the  classes,  viz.,  of  sg.  and  pi.  pret.  This  was 
started  by  VI.  and  VII.,  which  had  sg.  and  pi.  alike.  In  IV.  and  V.  the 
difference  was  only  one  of  quantity.  The  sg.  was  short  and  the  pi.  wag 
long.     The  sg.  had  to  take  a  long  vowel  according  to  488,  3. 

1.  In  CI.  II.  G.  T.  au  >  ao  >  6  before  dentals,  before  1,  r,  h,  and  finally 


210 


HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   ON"  ACCIDENCE. 


[461- 


There  were  therefore  already  o's  in  the  pret.  sg.  The  levelling  was  in 
favor  of  o,  but  of  6  before  certain  consonants  (ff,  d^,  f,  b  —  t).  o  was  already 
in  the  past  part.  <  ii.  Only  I.  and  III.  are  left.  But  in  1. 1  >  ei  accord- 
ing to  488,  5.  The  pres.  and  pret.  had  to  become  alike.  The  principle  of 
ablaut  was  thus  interfered  with  in  I.,  and  the  levelling  in  the  pret.  was 
in  favor  of  the  pi.  and  part.,  viz.,  i  or  ie  according  to  the  following  con- 
sonants. III.  is  the  only  class  in  which  the  levelling  was  in  favor  of  the 
pret.  sg.  Before  nasal  +  cons,  u  stood  in  the  pi.  and  part.  A  levelling 
in  favor  of  the  pi.  was  therefore  not  likely.  In  IV.  and  V.,  where  such  a 
levelling  occurred,  the  pj.  and  part,  had  different  vowels.  Before  1,  r,  + 
cons.,  to  be  sure,  there  was  u  in  the  pi.,  o  in  the  part.,  but  u  —  o  stood 
in  no  ablaut-relation.  But  this  levelling  was  the  latest  of  all  and  we  * 
find  none  in  S.  G.  dialects  at  the  present  day.  In  the  written  language 
of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries  it  is  rather  rare;  in  the  18th  it  is  the  rule 
with  not  a  few -exceptions.  SBerbem  toaxh  —  lt»urbe,  geworben  is  the  only 
verb  of  III.  in  which  the  pi. -vowel  stands  by  the  side  of  the  sg.  But  this 
verb  stands  isolated  from  the  rest  as  an  auxiliary  verb.  The  pret.-pres. 
verbs  have  not  suffered  levelling  except  foIIen(see  471, 2),  but  these  have 
stood  in  an  isolated  position  toward  all  the  other  strong  verbs  from  pre- 
historic times. 

461.  We  give  a  few  examples  of  the  classes  in  their  earlier  stages.  Space  will  not  per- 
mit to  trace  each  verb  of  each  class.  It  would  be  easy  to  show  what  verbs  have  died 
out,  what  verbs  have  become  weak,  and  what  weak  or  foreign  verbs  have  become 
strong.  The  stock  of  verbs  belonging  to  each  class  varies  with  every  period;  in  fact, 
it  is  ever  varying.  Compare,  e.g.^  lag,  m,  frag,  frug  VI.  (see  129),  and  the  large  num- 
ber  of  doubtful  ones  in  VIII. 


462.    I.  CI.  O.  (M.)  H.  G.   i  ei,  ^ 


grifan 

greifen 

zihan 

snidan 
fdjneiten 


greif 

ate* 

sneit 
f^nitt 


grifum 
griffen 

zigum 

snitum 
fd^nitten 


-grifan 

gegrijfen 

-zigan 

gegie^en 

-snitan 

gef(^nitten 


1.  The  interchange  of  h— g,  d— t  according  to  Verner's  Law,  see  416. 
i  >  ei  according  to  488,  5.  N.  H.  G.  i  in  the  whole  pret.  by  levelling. 
ei  >  e  before  h,  r,  w.  i  represents  both  the  medium  stage  G.  T.  ei  and 
the  weak  stage  i.    i  is  the  zero  stage. 


464] 


HISTORICAL   COMMENTARY  ON    ACCIDENCE. 


211 


463.     II.  0. 

H. 

G.   iu  —  io 

ou,  6 

w 

u 

triofan 

trouf 

trufum 

-trofan 

triefen 

troff 

troffen 

getroffen 

kiosan 

k6s 

kurum 

-koran 

fiefen,  furen 

fo^,  for 

(er)foren 

erforen 

siodan 

86t 

sutum 

-sotan 

fteten 

fott 

fotten 

gefotten 

sufan 

souf 

sufum 

-sofan 

faufen 

foff 

foffen 

gefoffen 

1.  The  interchange  of  iu  —  io  according  to  406;  iu  in  the  pres.  sg. 
triufu,  triufist,  triufit,  but  pi.  triofames,  etc.,  inf.  triofan.  For  a  period 
this  iu,  having  passed  >  ii,  became  eu  by  diphthongization.  These  forms 
are  now  archaic,  ie  prevailing  through  the  whole  present,  see  124. 
M.  H.  G.  io  >  ie.  G.  T.  au  >  ou,  but  >  ao  >  6  before  dentals,  1,  r,  h 
and  finally.  The  interchange  of  s  —  r,  d  —  t  according  to  Verner's  Law, 
but  levelled,  as  in  f(^neit>en  I.,  in  favor  of  t,  in  the  whole  preterit.  In 
M.  H.  G.  kiesen,  kos,  korn,  gekoren  for  a  while,  but  later,  Uefen,  fo^, 
gefofen;  fiefen,  for,  geforen;  now  furen,  for,  geforen.    See  132. 

2.  In  this  series  all  the  four  grades  of  ablaut  are  represented,  ou 
strong  ;  io,  iu  medium  ;  u  the  weak  ;  u  zero,  u  >  au  regularly,  u  ap- 
peared in  verbs  that  had  the  accent  on  the  suflBx.     Compare  457. 


464.    III.  CI.  O.  (M.)  H.  G.    e— i  a 

i,  a,  u  before  nasal  +  cons.;  e  —  i,  u  —  o  before  r,  1  +  cons. 


U 


U- 


swimman 

swam 

swummum 

-swumman 

fc^mimmen 

fd5tt>amm 

fAwammen 

gefc^njommen 

fintan 

fant 

funtum 

-funtan 

ftnten 

fant)  ■ 

fanten 

gefunten 

helfan 

half 

hulfuTTi 

-holfan 

l^elfen 

^If 

t^alfen 

ge^^olfen 

1.  This  is  in  N.  H.  G.  the  most  primitive  series,     ftnben,  fanb,  gefunben  is 
already  the  G.  T.  series.     Iu  the  second  group  (see  125,  3)  the  secondary 


212 


HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   ON  ACCIDENCE. 


[465~ 


transition  of  u  >  o  is  a  M.  G.  feature.  It  takes  place  before  nn  and  mm. 
The  older  transition  from  u  >  o  before  1,  r  +  cons,  is  already  0.  H.  G. 
See  405. 

2.  The  interchange  of  e  —  i  is  regular  (see  403).  It  appears  in  III., 
IV.,  V.  alike. 

3.  The  double  preterit  subjunctive  (see  125)  is  due  to  the  levelling  of 
the  indicative.  The  subjunctive  was  regularly  formed  with  the  vowel  of 
the  pi.  and  umlaut  of  the  same.  Now  when  the  vow  el  of  the  sg.  spread 
over  the  pi.  it  is  natural  a  new  subjunctive  should  be  formed  also  by  um- 
laut: fanbc,  barge.  Wherever  the  new  pret.  subj.  in  a  did  not  approach 
too  closely  to,  or  coincide  with,  the  present  ind.,  it  prevailed  as  in  the 
first  division:  finbe  —  fanbe,  binbe  —  banbe,  gelinge  —  gclangc.  Where  such 
a  coincidence  was  the  case,  the  old  subjunctive  is  still  in  use  and  prefer- 
able as  in  the  third  division:  bcrge  —  (boirge)  burgc,  jlcrtc  —  flurbe,  wcibe  — 
TOurbe,  see  126.  53efe^Icn  and  em^jfeblen  of  IV.  belong  here  since  in  M.  H.  G. 
they  were  bevelhen,  enpfelhen,  containing  1  +  cons,  j^eblen  IV  <  stein  has 
followed  the  analogy  of  III.,  3,  on  account  of  fla^le,  the  regular  subj.  and 
fte^Ic  the  pres.  ind.  The  2.  division  has  o  for  older  ii  just  as  it  has  o  for 
u  :  gewiinne  >  gcwounc,  but  the  new  ones  in  a  are  quite  common  except  of 
rinncn,  on  account  of  rennen. 

4.  e  —  i  is  the  medium  stage,  a  the  strong;  the  weak  and  zero  appear 
as  u  —  o. 


465.     IV.  CI.  O.  (M.)  H.  G.    e— i 


^ 


stelan  stal  stdlum  -stolan 

fte^len  flabi  fta^kn  gefto^len 

koman,  quern  an  quam  quamum  -koman 

fommen  fam  famen  gefcmmen 


1.  Here  is  again  interchange  of  e  —  i.  a  prevailed  in  the  pret.  u  >o 
regularly. 

2.  Queman  > koman  according  to  489, 1.  It  is  possible  that  "koman  " 
is  the  weak  grade  (see  471,  2).  flcd^en  belonged  originally  to  V.  ;  it  has 
no  liquid.  Before  6)  and  jf  the  vowel  is  short,  except  in  the  pret.  of 
course :  fl^d^en,  jloi^,  flcflo(^m. 


469] 


466. 


HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY   ON 

ACCIDENCE. 

.      V.Cl. 

0. 

H.  G.   e 

a 

a            e 

geban 
geben 

gab 

gab 

gabum 

Qobtn 

-geban 

gegeben 

e^an 

effen 

d^,  a^ 
4 

-e^jan 
(ge)9efl(ett 

bitten 
Bitten 

bat 

kt 

bdtum 
kten 

-betan 
gebeten 

wesan 

was 

wdrum 

-wesan 

(fein) 

ttjar 

n?aren 

getpefen 

213 


1.  In  e  the  three  lowest  grades  are  represented,  there  was  no  liquid  or 
nasal  to  represent  the  3.  and  4.  grades,  a  is  the  strong  stage.  The  origin 
of  a  is  not  certain,  a^  is  perhaps  from'ea^,  'e  being  the  reduplicating  syl- 
lable. For  bitten,  see  457,  1.  In  the  part,  the  interchange  of  s  —  r  was 
levelled  away  after  the  inf.  as  early  as  0.  H.  G.;  in  the  pret.  with  the 
levelling  of  the  vowels.  Sa^  is  archaic  in  Feuchtersleben's  :  ©o  (if) 
bit  gef(^enft  ein  ^^nofplein  toa^.  Interchange  of  e  —  i  as  usual  and  quantity 
of  e  depends  upon  the  following  consonants. 


467.    VI.  CI.  O.H.  G.   a    e 

uo,  6 

uo,  6 

faran 

fuor 

fuorum 

-faran 

fa^ren 

fu^r 

fu^ren 

gefa^ren 

heffen 

huob 

huobum 

-haban 

M.H.  G.heben 

buop 

huobum 

-haben 

^eben 

^ob,  |ub 

loben,  ^nkn 

ge^oben 
(er)^aben 

1.  This  series  has  only  two  grades,  strong  and  weak-medium,  see  400. 
G  T.  6>uo>u.    For  e  in  heffen,  ^ebcu,  see  457, 1.    For  a>o,  see  489,  3. 

468.  VII.  CI.  Its  verbs  do  not  form  an  ablaut-series,  see  458. 

469.  VIII.  Cl.  Its  verbs  have  mostly  o  for  a,  a  in  the  pret. 
and  the  majority  belong  to  III.,  IV.,  V.  Some  of  these  were 
unsettled  very  early,  e,  g. ,  M.  H.  G.  pflegen  IV.  and  V.  For 
4  >  o,  6,  see  489,  3. 


214  HISTORICAL   COMMEi^TARy    Oif   ACCIDENCE.         [470^ 

The  Preterit-Present  Verbs. 

470.  In  these  the  meaning  admitted  of  the  perfect  being  used  as  a 
present.  They  are  a  primitive  class.  Compare  Gr.  olda,  l6/iev,  h&t.odi,  novi. 
With  a  few  irregularities  they  can  yet  be  assigned  to  the  regular  ablaut- 
series  as  has  been  done  (see  135).  Weak  preterits  were  formed  without 
connecting  vowel.  Therefore  umlaut  in  the  subj.  The  stem- vowel  is 
the  same  for  the  old  pret.  p].,  the  new  preterit,  the  participles  and  the 
infinitive.  The  participles  (see  453, 1)  were  formed  either  weak  or  strong, 
generally  weak.  Since  the  infinitive  is  a  new  formation  as  well  as  some 
of  the  strong  participles,  and  since  as  in  gan — gunnen  (gonncn)  the  strong 
participle  was  formed  before  there  was  an  infinitive,  it  is  hardly  correct  to 
say  the  infinitive  is  used  instead  of  the  part,  in  modern  German  :  eigen, 
O.  H.  G.  gawi^^an,  M.  H.  G.  gunnen,  gegunnen,  {er)kunnen  are  strong 
participles.  The  others,  biirfen,  fonnen,  miigen,  foKen,  were  formed  later.  No 
doubt,  participles  like  hei^^en,  la^en,  etc.  (see  453, 2),  had  their  influence 
in  the  non-use  of  ge-.     Eng.  has  formed  no  infinitive. 

1.  The  inflection  of  the  present  is  that  of  the  regular  strong  pret.  They 
have  even  one  very  old  feature,  viz.,  in  2.  pers.  sg.  t  is  used,  the  second- 
ary ending,  while  in  all  other  strong  verbs  the  optative  has  entered  the 
indicative,  e.  g.,  ndmi,  but  tarsi  ( 4-  durst)  darft,  scalt  ( -f  thou  slialt), 
maht.  st  in  canst,  anst  is  a  mystery.  This  t  still  occurs  in  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries,  bu  folt  nii^t  jle^Ien  (B.). 

471.  1.  O.  H.  G.  wei^  —  wi^^um  I.  corresponds  exactly  to 
Gr.  ol6a  —  i'(5f/ev,  in  ablaut  and  consonants. 

2.  seal,  scalt  (2.  pers.  sg.),  senium,  scolta  IV. 

It  is  possible  that  senium  is  older  than  the  long  vowel  of  IV. 
("  stalum  "),  for  it  may  be  the  weak  grade  of  ablaut,  like  -boran,  sufan. 

3.  O.  H.  G.       muoj        muost        muo^jum  muosa  and  muosta 
M.  H.  G.      muo^        muost        miie^eu  muose,  muoste 

subj.  miiese,  miieste 
N.  H.  G.      mu§,         mupt,  miiffcn,  mu^tc,    mufte. 

Of  the  double  form  muose  —  muoste  the  former  is  the  older  and  regu- 
larly developed,  muose  <  *m6t-ta,  muosta  has  the  suffix  added  once 
more.  The  umlaut  that  appears  in  M.  H.  G.  and  later  in  the  pres.  pi.  and 
inf.  is  difllcult  to  account  for. 


474]  HISTOKICAL  COMMENTARY   Ol!^^  ACCIDENCE.  215 

4.  fed  <  scliol  <  sclial  <  seal.  Why  f  <  f(^  ?  Compare  0.  and  M. 
H.  G.  skal  —  sal,  but  always  ®(^ulb. 

5.  gonnen  III.  and  taugen  II.  have  become  weak.  They  come  respec- 
tively <  gan-gunnen,  in  which  g-  is  prefix,  and  <  touc-tugen,  to  be  fit, 
+  Eng.  do  in  "  it  will  not  do,"  "  how  do  you  do  "  (?). 

6.  eigen  +  own  <  eigan  is  the  strong  part,  of  a  stem  of  which  there 
appears  only  a  pi.  aigum  in  0.  H.  G.  g  according  to  Verner's  Law.  It 
belongs  to  the  a  —  a  ablaut-series  like  hei^^an  —  liej  —  gihei^^an,  tar 
—  turren  +  dare  has  disappeared.  Its  meaning  has  passed  into  barf  — 
biirfen. 

472.  1.  Notice  that  Eng.  must  is  really  a  double  pret.-pres.  verb, 
must  is  the  weak  preterit  used  again  as  a  present,  wu^te  <  weste,  see 
489,  1.    Compare  Eng.  to  wit,  wist,  wot.     See  Skeat. 

2.  0.  H.  G.  will  wilt,  wili,  pi.  wellemes,  wellet,  wellent,  pret.  welta,  inf. 
wellan.  o  appears  for  e  already  in  this  period  (see  489,  1).  M.  H.  G.  2, 
pers.  sg.  is  wilt,  wil.  N.  H.  G.  it^iUjl.  This  is  really  no  pret.-pres.  verb, 
but  we  have  according  to  custom  put  it  at  the  end  of  this  class.  It  is 
really  a  mi-verb,  whose  ind.  was  lost.     Compare  L.  velim. 

^p,«     r  <  Mi- Verbs. 

473.  feim 

1.  O.  H.  G.  bim,  bis(t),  ist,  birum,  birut,  sint.  Subj.  si,  etc. 
Inf.  sin,  wesan  V.  Imp.  wis,  wesat,  sit  ;  pret.  was ;  subj. 
wtlri.     In  M.  H.  G.  the  pres.  pi.  runs:  1.  p.  birn,  sint,  sin; 

2.  p.  birt,  sit,  sint  ;  3.  p.  sint,  sin.     In  N.  H.  G.  mx  fint)  <  the 

3.  person;  i!^r  feit)  <  the  subjunctive;  fie  fint)  is  primitive,  comp. 
L.  sunt,  sint. 


2.  Three  stems  have  helped  to  form  its  conjugation,  viz.,  Ves-,  Vb'x-, 
L.  fui,  Gr.  <f>v(j,  and  the  verb  wesan.  It  would  lead  us  too  far  to  enter 
minutely  upon  the  part  each  plays,  but  the  development  is  not  at  all  dif- 
ficult to  trace.  Only  r  in  birum,  birn  is  a  mystery,  but  it  appears  also  in 
the  reduplicating  verbs  of  VII. 

474.    gdn,  gen,  gangan,  g  e  ^  it,  +  go. 

1.  O.  H.  G.  gam,  gas,  gdt,  gam,  gdt,  gdnt;  gem,  ges,  get,  g^t, 
gent;  the  subj.  only  ge,  ges,  ge,  etc.  Imp.  ganc,  gat,  get. 


216  HISTORICAL   COMMENTARY   ON   ACCIDENCE.  [475- 

2.  The  verb  gangan  is  of  VII.  The  relation  of  a  to  e  is  not  clear.  Kluge 
has  shown  that  gen  is  compounded  of  ga  (prefix)  +  Vi,  L.  ire.  Then  gem 
<  ga-im,  ges  <  ga-is,  etc.     See  his  Diet. 

475.  start,  sten,  stantan,  ^^^^,  +  stand. 

1.  It  inflects  just  like  gen.  standan,  stuont  —  gistandan  according 
to  VI.    A  past  participle  gestan  occurs  also. 

2.  Bolh  gangan  and  stantan  show  a  secondary  stem  and  a  present- 
formation  with  n  (see  457,  2),  which  n  also  entered  the  preterit  and  the 
other  forms. 

476.  luon,  1 1)  u  n,  +  do, 

1.  O.  H.  G.  tuom,  tuos,  tuot,  tuom,  tuot,  tuont  ;  subj.  tuo, 
tuos,  tuo,  tuom,  tuot,  tuon;  pret.  teta,  tati,  teta,  tdtum,  tatut, 
tdtum ;  subj.  tati,  tatis,  tati.  M.  H.  G.  subjunctive  with 
umlaut.     Past  part,  gitdu. 

2.  teta  is  the  pure  reduplicated  perf.  te  +  ta,  the  stem.  The  pi.  in  a 
is  probably  ablaut  of  the  almost  lost  series  L-E.  e  —  6,  O.  H.  G.  a  —  uo. 
Comp.  Gr.  pvyvvfii  —  tppuya.  N.  H.  G.  t^cit  <  M.  H.  G.  tet  is  archaic  and 
has  a  curious  spelling  as  if  it  were  subj. 


478]  HISTORY  OF  THE  LAHGUAGE.  217 


C.    HISTORY  or  THE  LANGUAGE. 

477.  "  German"  belongs  to  the  Germanic  or  Teutonic  group  of  languages,  which 
again  is  a  member  of  the  Indo-European  group.  To  the  latter  belong  the  following : 
the  Aryan  (Sanskrit,  etc.),  the  Iranic  (old  Batric  and  Persian),  Greek,  Latin^  Keltic, 
Slavic.  Armenian,  Germanic,  and  perhaps  as  a  separate  member  Albanian.  Whether 
the  Germanic  languages  are  more  intimately  related  with  one  member  than  with  an- 
other is  considered  very  doubtful  by  most  authorities,  though'some  think  Slavic  and 
Germanic  so  related. 

478.  Characteristics  of  the  Germanic  languages: 

1.  Grimm's  Law  with  Verner's  Law  (see  407 — 416). 

2.  The  double  verb-inflection,  one  by  ablaut,  the  other  hj  composition. 
The  suffixes  -da,  -ta  in  the  weak  preterit  are  quite  peculiar.  The  tenses 
have  been  reduced  to  two.  The  future  and  the  subjunctive  (see  448) 
are  lost. 

3.  A  certain  "  law  of  finals  "  showed  itself  in  General  Teutonic  in  the 
consonants,  but  the  '*  law  of  final  vowels  "  belongs  entirely  to  the  indi- 
vidual dialects.  For  instance:  L-E.  *h'eroit  became  G.  T.  %eroi,  Go. 
berai  (e  written  for  Go.  ai).  N.  sg.  masc.  o-stems :  G.  T.  *dagoz,  Go. 
dags,  Scand.  dagr,  Ags.  dag,  0.  H.  G.  ta^. 

N.  sg.  fern.:  I.-E.  *gebd  >  G  T.  gebo,  Ags.  giefu,  but  by  levelling  of 
Ace.  and  Nom.  O.  H.  G.  geba. 

4.  The  limitation  of  the  accent  to  the  stem-syllable  was  probably 
General  Teutonic,  though  Verner's  Law  shows  that  the  Indo-European 
accent  was  preserved  until  the  surd  spirants  in  the  unaccented  syllable 
became  sonant.  Gr.  iraTijp  shows  I.-E.  accent,  but  G.  T.  fathdr  >  Go. 
fadhar  >  fadar  >  0.  H.  G.  fater. 

5.  The  spread  of  the  n-declension,  which  in  German  is  still  going  on. 
See  428,  2.    The  locative  case  is  lost. 

6.  The  double  adjective  declension.  The  other  I.-E.  dialects  decline 
adjective  and  substantive  alike.  The  Germanic  has,  1,  a  strong  declen- 
sion made  up  of  substantive  and  pronominal  case-endings;  2,  a  weak  de- 
clension identical  with  the  n-declension  of  substantives.     See  437. 


218  HISTORY   OF  THE   LANGUAGE.  [479- 

Classification  of  the  Germanic  Languages. 

479.  The  following  is  in  our  opinion  the  best  classification  . 

I.  East  Germanic,  viz.,  Gothic,  the  language  of  the  Goths,  who  once 
probably  occupied  European  Russia.  The  chief  literary  monument  is 
part  of  the  Bible  translation  made  for  the  Westgoths  by  their  bishop 
Umia  (A.  D.  310—381).     The  manuscript  is  of  the  sixth  century. 

a.  In  comparison  with  Anglo  Saxon  and  0.  H.  G.  the  language  is 
"simple,"  but  in  spite  of  the  great  age  of  its  literary  monuments,  it 
should  be  made  the  basis  for  the  comparative  study  of  the  group  only 
with  great  caution. 

II.  Toe  North  Germanic  or  Scandinavian  Languages.    Two 

groups :  East- Scandinavian, y\z.,  Swedish  and  Danish  ;  West-Scandinaman, 
viz.,  Norwegian  and  Icelandic.  Earliest  literature  of  East-Scandinavian 
of  the  fourtheenth  century  consisting  of  laws.  Runes  of  the  5.  (1)  cen- 
tury. Rich  literature  of  West-Scandinavian  on  Iceland,  colonized  by  Nor- 
wegians, of  the  12th  century  and  earlier.  The  literary  language  of  Norway, 
Sweden  and  Denmark  is  East  Scandinavian.  Norwegian  exists  only  in  dia- 
lects.   Icelandic  is  the  official  as  well  as  the  popular  language  of  Iceland. 

III.  West  Germanic  Dialects.  English  was  very  early  isolated 
from  the  rest  of  the  group,  being  the  language  of  the  early  colonists  in 
England,  who  were  mainly  Frisians,  viz..  Angles,  Saxons  and  Jutes. 
The  Frisians  emigrated  from  their  old  homes  on  the  coast  of  the  North 
Sea  from  the  river  Scheldt  to  the  river  Eider  in  Schleswig.  The  Jutes 
lived  to  the  north  of  them.  This  settlement  continued  during  the  5th 
and  6th  centuries.  In  the  9th  the  Danish  conquest  occurred  and  in  the 
11th  the  great  Norman  conquest,  which  gave  to  English  that  great  influx 
of  Romance  words  and  removed  it  still  more  from  its  cognate  dialects  on 
the  continent.  Literature  beginning  with  the  7th  century.  Runes, 
Beowulf,  Caedmon,  etc. 

a.  The  oldest  dialects  are,  1,  Anglian,  incl.  Northumbrian  and  Mercian  ; 
2,  Saxon,  the  chief  is  West-Saxon ;  3,  Kentish. 

480.  The  Continental  West  Germanic  dialects  are  divided  according  to 
Grimm's  Law.  The  North  and  East-Germanic,  and  English  only  under- 
went the  first  shifting,  that  is,  the  General  Germanic  (Teutonic)  shifting. 
The  continental  dialects  shifted  again,  some  more,  some  less. 


481]  HISTORY   OF  THE   LANGUAGE.  219 

Classification  of  the  German  Dialects. 

1.  The  Low  (or  North)  German  shifted  only  th  >  d,  compare  Engl. 
"  the  "  —  Low  German  "  de  ". 

2.  The  Middle  German  shifted  much  more. 

3.  The  South  German  (Oberdeutsch)  shifted  most  of  all. 

a.  "  High  German  "  if  it  is  to  translate  "  Hoclideutsch  "  is  ambiguous, 
since  many  still  make  "  hochdeutsch  "  include  "  Oberdeutsch  "  and  *'  Mit- 
teldeutsch."  Nieder  (low),  Mittel  (middle),  and  Ober  (upper,  south)  refer 
to  the  geography  of  the  country  only. 

481.     L  The  Low  German  Dialects. 

1.  Frisian.  Though  the  literature  is  only  of  the  15th  and  16th  cen- 
turies, the  language  shows  a  stage  at  least  some  300  years  older.  Its 
territory  (see  484)  has  been  largely  encroached  upon  by  Low  Saxon  and 
Prankish.  It  embraces  still  the  northern  provinces  of  Holland  (West 
Frisian);  Oldenburg  and  the  Hanoverian  county  of  Ostfriesland  (East 
Frisian);  North  Sleswic  with  the  islands  off  the  western  Sleswic-Holstein 
coast  (North  Frisian).  But  the  modern  dialects  of  the  region  described 
are  strongly  influenced  by  Low  Saxon. 

2.  Low  Saxon.  Earliest  literature  the  Heliand  of  the  9th  century. 
Territory  very  large. 

Draw  a  line  from  Dflsseldorf  to  Cassel  curving  slightly  southward;  from  Cassel  to 
Quedlinburg  to  Posen  and  to  the  boundary  of  the  empire.  All  that  is  north  of  this, 
except  Frisian  and  Slavic  in  East  Prussia,  is  Low  Saxon.  Two  thirds  of  its  territory 
is  colonial,  however.  The  Slavic  conquests  from  the  6th  to  the  9th  centuries  had  their 
western  limit  in  the  following  lin-j  :  Kiel,  halfway  between  Brunswick  and  Magdeburg, 
Naumburg,  Coburg,  Linz,  Klagenfurt.  What  is  east  of  it  is  colonial  for  the  German 
language,  either  for  Low,  Middle,  or  High  German.  About  half  of  Germany  and  three 
fourths  of  Prussia  therefore  are  on  once  Slavic  territory. 

a.  Frisian  and  Low  Saxon  together  are  now  often  called  "  Plattdeutsch,''''  which  even 
in  our  day  can  boast  of  a  poet,  Klaus  Groth  (Holstein  dialect),  and  of  such  a  capital 
novelist  as  Fritz  Renter  (Mecklenburg  dialect)  who  died  a  few  years  ago. 

3.  Low  Frankish.  Literature  :  oldest  the  Lex  Salica,  very  badly  pre- 
served, and  fragments  of  a  translation  of  the  Psalms.  Of  the  12th  century 
the  "  Eineide  "  by  Veldeke,  and  in  the  13th  a  very  rich  literature  in  Hol- 
land and  Brabant.  Territory :  Holland  (Dutch  crowding  out  Frisian), 
the  northern  half  of  Belgium  (Flemish),  and  the  northern  part  of  the 
Prussian  Rhine  Province.  Dutch  is  now  the  only  Low  German  literary 
language.     Attempts  are  making  to  revive  Flemish. 


220  HISTORY  OF  THE  LAKGUAGE.  [482- 

482.  II.  Middle  German. 

For  this  group  draw  about  the  following  line,  which  will  separate  it  from  the 
South  German  dialects  :  From  Nancy  (but  this  is  French)  across  the  frontier  with  a 
curve  north  of  Strassburg  to  Rastatt  in  Baden,  tliroiigh  Heilbronn  to  Eichstadt,  then 
north  to  Eger,  from  there  directly  eastward,  but  Bohemia  is  Slavic,  of  course. 

Beginning  in  the  west  we  have  then  : 

1.  Middle  Frankish  (according  to  Braune).  Its  territory  consists  chiefly 
of  the  Rhine  Province,  whose  centre  is  Cologne.     Very  httle  literature, 

2.  South  Frankish  and  Hessian.  South  and  west  of  1,  and  north  of 
South  German  line.  The  eastern  limit  would  be  a  line  drawn  from 
Cassel  to  Heilbronn.  A  rich  and  old  literature  :  Isidorus  of  the  8th  cen- 
tury. The  great  gospel  harmony  of  Otfrid  of  Weissenburg.  The  Lud- 
wigslied  and  much  more. 

3.  East  or  High  Frankish.  East  of  2.  Eastern  limit  is  the  S.  G.  line 
from  Eichstadt  to  Eger  and  a  line  from  Eger  to  Cassel.  Its  old  literary 
centre  was  Fulda.  The  larger  monuments  are  Tatian,  and  Willlram's 
paraphrase  of  the  Song  of  Songs,  about  the  year  900. 

The  next  three  are  almost  entirely  on  colonized  territory,  viz.,  4.  Thu- 
ringian,  north  of  3  and  south  of  the  Low  German  line;  5.  Upper  Saxon. 
chiefly  the  present  kingdom  of  Saxony  ;  6.  Silesian.  5.  and  6.  are  east 
of  the  rest,  but  do  not  extend  to  the  boundary  of  the  empire,  since  there 
is  a  long  stretch  still  Slavic,  though  with  German  written  language. 
Their  literatures  belong  to  the  M.  H.  G.  period. 

483.  III.  South  German. 

The  southern  limit  towards  the  Romance  dialects  would  be,  roughly  speaking,  a 
line  drawn  from  the  lake  of  Geneva  eastward  to  Klagenfurt  in  Austria  and  beyond, 
then  directly  north  through  Pressburg  to  Brflnn.  The  eastern  boundary  is  the  Hun- 
garian, the  northeastern  the  Slavic  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia. 

1.  Alemanic,  divided  into :  a.  Alemanic  proper,  covering  Alsace,  the 
larger  part  of  Baden  and  Switzerland,  h.  Sudbian,  covering  the  larger 
part  of  Wiirtemberg  and  Suabian  Bavaria.  The  eastern  limit  would  be 
a  line  from  Eichstadt  to  Fiissen.  The  literary  centre  was  St.  Gallen. 
Abundant  literature  of  the  8th  and  9th  centuries.  The  "  Benedictiner 
Regal."  The  Paternoster  and  Credo  of  St.  Gallen.  Vocabularius  St. 
Galli.  Murbach  Hymns.  '*  Christ  and  the  Samaritan  woman."  The 
extensive  works  of  Notker. 


486]  HISTORY  OF  THE   LANGUAGE.  221 

2.  Bavarian-Austrian,  covering  the  larger  part  of  Bavaria  and  non- 
Slavic  Austria.  The  oldest  of  all  Old  H.  Q.  is  the  Glossary  of  Kero 
(740) ;  the  Glossary  of  Hrabanus  Maurus ;  the  so-called  "  Exhurtatio  "  and 
the  poem  Muspilli,  besides  smaller  pieces. 

484.  It  is  impossible  for  us  to  give  here  a  description  of  the  phonology  of  these  dia- 
lects.  Besides  Grimm's  Law  the  long  vowels  and  the  diphthongs  are  the  chief  criteria  for 
their  classification.  Their  territories  have  not  remarkably  changed.  Note  that  Frisian 
has  been  driven  out  of  Holland  by  Dutch  and  in  Germany  it  leads  a  very  precarious 
existence  upon  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Hanover  and  Oldenburg,  having  been 
crowded  out  by  "  Plattdeutsch."  Low  German  has  also  encroached  upon  Middle 
German  territory  in  northeastern  Germany.  The  only  scientific  description  that  we 
have  of  any  modern  dialect  is  that  by  Winteler  of  the  Kerenzer  dialect  (Swiss- 
Alemanic). 

History  of  German. 

485.  In  point  of  time  we  divide  the  history  both  of  the  lan- 
guage and  of  the  literature  into  three  periods,  viz.,  Old  High- 
German  till  1100;  Middle  High  German  till  1500;  New  High 
German  since  then,  perhaps  better  till  about  1800,  because 
the  literary  language  of  the  18th  century  is  already  taking  on 
an  archaic  character  in  comparison  with  the  language  of  the 
last  fifty  years.     See  487,  3. 

1.  The  literature  of  the  0.  H.  G.  period  is  entirely  dialectic  and  clerical. 
We  have  one  poem,  unfortunately  only  fragmentary,  the  Hildehrantslied, 
that  goes  back  in  matter  and  meter  to  the  period  before  the  introduction 
of  Christianity. 

2.  There  has  been  much  contention,  whether  there  was  a  standard 
written  language  in  the  M.  H.  G.  period.  Lachmann  and  his  school  main- 
tain that  there  was  and  that  it  died  out  with  the  decay  of  literature  in 
the  14th  century.  But  the  opinion  is  losing  ground.  The  reasons 
against  are  well  stated  in  Paul's  "  Gab  es  eine  mittelhochdeutsche 
Schriftsprache  ?  "  The  literature  was  mainly  lyrical  and  epic.  Its  climax 
falls  in  the  12th  century.  The  chief  differences  between  the  O.  and  M. 
H.  G.  periods  are  :  1,  the  spread  of  umlaut ;  3,  the  weathering  of  unac- 
cented and  inflectional  vowels  to  mere  e. 

486.  With  the  N.  H.  G.  period  begins  the  written  language  that  became 
not  suddenly,  but  gradually  the  standard  literary  language  of  Germany. 
In  phonology  it  agrees  with  that  of  the  East  Frankish  dialect,  which  is 
the  M.  G.  dialect  that  is  most  closely  related  to  S.  G.     Its  territory  was  in 


222  HISTORY  OF  THE  LAi^^GUAGE.  [487- 

the  very  centre  of  Germany.   Both  this  position  and  this  relationship  are 
two  elements  that  help  to  account  for  its  spread. 

1.  From  this  same  centre  started  the  Reformation.  Luther's  share  in 
the  establishment  of  the  written  language  is  generally  not  well  stated  and 
even  overrated.  Fourteen  translations  of  the  Bible  had  been  published  up 
to  1518  in  H.  G.  alone,  made  from  the  Vulgate.  The  language  was  based 
upon  the  *' Kamleisprache"  i.  e.,  the  "official"  language  in  which  em- 
peror and  princes  published  decrees  and  laws  and  in  which  aU  govern- 
ment business  was  transacted. 

2.  There  were  at  first  several  of  these  "  Kanzleisprachen,"  differing  more 
or  less.  We  find  traces  of  them  as  early  as  the  14th  century.  Those  of 
Austria,  Bohemia  and  Saxony  were  first  amalgamated.  It  was  this  lan- 
guage that  Luther  used  in  his  Bible  translation,  moulded  by  him,  of 
course,  as  every  man  of  genius  will  mould  his  mother-tongue.  Luther,  by 
birth  a  Middle  German,  had  come  in  contact  with  people  of  all  stations, 
speaking  Low  and  South  German.  No  Bible,  the  circumstances  being  the 
same,  translated  into  strict  South  German  would  and  could  have  been 
accepted  by  North  Germany.  Again  Luther  had  sprung  from  among 
the  people  and  had  a  most  hearty  appreciation  of  folk-lore  and  all  that  is 
"  volkstiimlich,"  of  proverbs,  saws  and  songs.  This  made  him  a  trans- 
lator for  the  people.  The  proverbs  of  Solomon  and  the  psalms  are  with- 
out doubt  the  most  taking  portions  of  his  translation. 

487.  The  spirit  of  the  Reformation  was  one  roused  from  the  lethargy 
of  the  preceding  centuries  and  ready  for  something  new.  Luther's  New 
Testament  appeared  in  1522,  the  whole  Bible  in  1534.  Besides  the 
Bible  the  catechism,  hymns,  sermons  and  the  numerous  polemical 
pamphlets  were  written  and  read  in  the  new  language.  With  the 
Reformation  began  also  the  public  school  {^' wlksschule")  and  the  first 
grammars  and  " formeWucher  "  appeared,  written  often  by  the  lawyers, 
who,  of  course,  favored  the  "  Kanzleisprache."  But  last  and  foremost  of 
all  the  in'oention  of  printing,  some  fifty  years  before  the  Reformation, 
made  a  common  language  possible. 

1.  The  clerks  would  write  and  spell  as  they  spoke,  i.e.,  according  to  their 
own  dialect.  Printing  brought  about  a  certain  uniformity  in  the  orthog- 
raphy. It  spread  the  language  to  the  most  different  parts  of  the  country. 
About  the  year  1600,  books  were  already  cheap  in  comparison  to  the  costly 
manuscripts.  In  1523  a  Bible  was  printed  at  Bale,  which  had  as  appendix 
a  sort  of  dictionary  explaining  the  teihis  unfamiliar  to  the  Swiss. 


488]  *     HISTORY   OF  THE  LAKGUAGE.  223 

2.  The  struggle  of  the  new  language  was  hardest  in  Switzerland.  Both 
Catholic  and  Calvinist  objected  to  a  Lutheran  language.  In  North  Ger- 
many it  was  favored  by  the  fact  that  the  whole  North  became  Protestant 
en  masse.  Yet  hymns  were  printed  there  in  Low  German  for  a  long  time. 
In  the  17th  century  High  German  preachers  came  to  the  North.  But 
through  printing  the  writings  of  one  man  exercise  a  great  influence  upon 
the  speech  of  his  readers.  Printing  in  fact  has  introduced  into  the  de- 
velopment of  language  a  certain  stiff,  artificial  element  that  the  written, 
and  especially  the  unwritten,  dialects  do  not  have.  The  printed  language 
has  more  of  a  fixed,  stereotyped  character  than  dialect.  But  on  the  other 
hand  we  must  remember  that  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  not  the 
language.  They  are  only  contrivances  that  represent  speech  very  inl- 
perfectly,  contrivances  invented  several  thousand  years  ago,  which  we 
try  to  apply  now  to  that  most  subtile  institution — language,  that  has 
been  changing  and  developing  ever  since. 

3.  The  language  of  the  19th  century  differs  not  a  little  from  the  lan- 
guage of  the  16th.  The  differences  in  forms  and  functions  have  been  treated 
to  some  extent  in  Part  I.  The  17th  century  is  a  dark  gloomy  page  in  the 
history  of  Germany  and  almost  a  blank  in  its  literature.  In  the  first  half 
of  the  eighteenth  we  see  the  beginnings  of  the  classical  period.  Until 
then  Latin  was  the  language  of  the  learned,  and  in  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries  there  was  a  large  number  of  foreign  words  both  in  the  written 
and  spoken  languages  that  were  never  assimilated,  but  driven  out  again 
by  a  school  of  literary  men  that  started  a  revival  of  the  love  of  old 
German. 

The  following  are  the  more  important  and  far-reaching  sound- 
changes  in  the  transition  from  M.  H.  G.  to  N.  H.  Gr. 

488.    A.  Vowels. 

1.  The  further  spread  of  umlaut  by  analogy  (levelling). 

Ex. :  as  a  sign  of  the  plural,  see  48;  in  derivatives  as  in:  glciubtg,  »atcr*' 
Ii(!^,  briiberlicl,  33rubercl)en,  Xoc^terlein  ;  in  long-stemmed  weak  verbs  as  in : 
l^oren,  l^iirte,  ge'^ort  <  hoeren,  horte,  gehorit  —  gehSrter  (see  455,  2). 

2.  The  lengthening  of  short  accented  stem-vowels  in  the 
open  syllable,  and  of  a  and  e  before  r,  rt,  rd.  To  this  process 
the  largest  number  of  the  present  long  vowels  is  due. 


224  HISTORY   OF  THE  LANGUAGE.      *  [488- 

Ex.:  fSo^tl,  |>of— .^ofe^;  geioiren  (  <  bern),  Qma^nn,  UUn,  mhtn,  fe^en; 
^a^n— |>a^ne^ ;  a:^ur,  mir,  njir,  er,  ber  (demonstrative),  kr  (but  barfu§) ;  ^erb, 
ttjerbe,  mxt,  laxt,  SSart.  Ur  in  the  sense  of  "great "  as  in  :  Urgrogyater,  other- 
wise short  or  long :  Uxlauh,  Urfprung,  but  Urteil  is  always  short,  -art  and 
-arj  are  unsettled  still.    Compare  ^Clrj,  SBSrjc. 

a.  The  short  vowel  is  retained  before  more  than  one  consonant  and  in 
a  closed  syllable,  except  before  r  (rt,  rd).  Ex.:  ^offen,  »olI,  rennen,  ^etfe, 
tooUtn,  fajl,  etc.,  but  mir,  wir,  as  above. 

b.  This  point  of  N.  H.  G.  phonology  is  by  no  means  all  cleared  up.  Paul  is  the  only 
one  that  has  thrown  any  light  upon  it.  See  P.  and  B.  Beitrage,  VII.  p.  101-  When 
through  inflectional  endings  the  stem- vowel  is  now  in  an  open,  now  in  a  closed  sylla- 
ble, the  standard  pronunciation  demands  levelling  in  favor  of  the  long  vowel  of  the  open 
syllable.  For  instance,  ba6  @la§,  @(afe§,  (Stafe,  ®la§,  ®tafer,  all  with  long  stem-vowels. 
In  N,  G.,  however,  ®Ia3,  ®va§,  Stag,  Sob,  (N.  and  A.  sg.),  are  always  short  according  to 
the  law  of  short  vowel  in  a  closed  syllable.  N.  and  S.  G.  agree  in  the  levelling  between 
the  sg.  and  pi.  pret.  of  ablaut-series,  IV.  and  V.  in  favor  of  the  long  vowel  of  the  plural, 
e.  g.,  ga6— gabcn,  fa^— fallen. 

c.  This  principle  may  be  stated  in  another  way  :  N.  H.  G.  makes  a  M. 
H.  G.  accented  syllable  containing  a  short  vowel  long,  either  by  length- 
ening the  vowel  or  by  lengthening,  i.e.,  "  doubling,"  the  consonant,  par- 
ticularly if  that  consonant  be  t  or  m,  and  if  a  single  consonant  is  followed 
by  er,  el,  en. 

Ex.:  (Stcittc,  ©itte,  fomnten,  ©omnter,  SBetter;  in  the  pret.  and  past  part,  of 
the  I.  and  II.  ablaut-series:  [(^nitt  —  gefc^nitten,  fott  —  gefotten.  This  change 
began  in  the  M.  H.  G.  period,  starting  from  L.  G.  it  spread  over  M.  and 
over  S.  G.  as  late  as  the  16tli  century. 

3.  Long  accented  vowels  are  shortened  before  more  than 
one  consonant. 

a.  This  process  is  not  far-reaching,  but  includes  also  the  long  vowels 
sub  4,  that  have  sprung  from  diphthongs.     It  started  with  the  M.  G 
dialects. 

Ex.:  ed)t  L.  G.,  see  493, 4,  <  ehaft;  bad^te,  brad)te  (see  454,  3).  2l(^t  < 
dJite;  ^crr,  ^errfdjen;  l^or^en  ;  ftng,  ^tng,  gtng  <  fienc,  Jdenc,  gienc ;  »ier  in 
the  compounds  »ierje^n,  -jig,  ttiertel,  etc.,  9)?utter  <  muoter. 

4.  The  simplification  of  tlie  diphthongs  ie  >  i,  still  spelt 
ie ;  no  >  it ;  lie  >  u  long. 

Examples  very  numerous :  SBIut  <  Uuot;  9)?ut  <  muot;  ®ute  <  guete; 
flip  <  aue^e;  ful^ren  <  vueren;  blii^cn  <  bluejen;  Ue&;  ticf;  always  in  the 


489]  HISTORY   OF  THE   LANGUAGE.  225 

preterit  of  Class  VII.  and  in  the  present  of  Class  II.,  viz.,  riet,  ftel,  Meten, 
fieben,  but  see  3, 

a.  This  also  is  a  M.  G.  feature  that  was  fixed  upon  the  "  Schriftsprache," 
showing  itself  as  early  as  the  13th  century.  The  S.  G.  dialects  do  not 
know  it  yet  (see  Hart's  Goethe's  Prose,  p.  40,  bottom). 

5.  The  diphthongization  of  the  long  vowels  i,  %  iu 
(whether  <  G.  T.  eu  or  umlaut  of  u,  value  u  long)  >  ei,  dw, 
eu  (du),  respectively. 

Ex.:  brei  <  dri,  SBetb  <  imp  ;  ci  in  the  present  of  the  I.  Class ;  laut  < 
lat ;  ^aut  <  hxibt ;  ©au  <  s\i ;  ^liiufer  <  Musir  <  hus  ;  vB^ciufe  <miuse  < 
m^is;  %xmz  <  triuwe;  euc^  <  inch;  Seuc^tc  <  liuhte;  er  kut  <  hiutet.  The 
Eng.  cognates,  e.  gr.,  the  verbs  of  the  I.  Class  write  —  wrote,  shine  —  shone, 
loud,  hide  ( <  Ags.  Jiyd),  sow,  house,  mouse  —  mice  show  that  a  similar 
diphthongization  of  long  i  and  u  has  taken  place,     o  in  wrote,  shone 

<  Ags.  a  <  ai  corresponds  to  the  old  diphthong,  M.  H.  G.  ei  as  in 
schein,  rei^,  etc.  Modern  German  ei  therefore  goes  back  to  i  in  ^eirat  < 
hirat ;  to  ei  in  fc^eiben  <  8cheiden;  ai  always  goes  back  to  ei,  ai  as  in  SD'Zat, 
^aifer.  au  <  u  in  $au(3  <  Ms;  but  <  ou  in  laufen  <  loufen;  au  (cu)  <  iu  < 
u  by  umlaut, in  ^aufer  <  Musir  <  hUs  ;  but  eu  <  iu  (eu)  in  Seute  <  liute, 
^eulen  <  hiulen ;  and  another  eu  <  ou  umlaut  of  ou  (<  au)  in  i^reube  < 
vroude  (  <  *frauwida),  ^eugen  <  Wugen  <  hougen  ( <  ^haugjan,  ablauts.  II.). 

a.  This  is  a  S.G.  feature,  especially  Bavarian,  in  which  dialect  it  started 
about  1200.  It  spread  over  East  Prankish  and  Upper  Saxon  in  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries  and  latest  over  Suabian.  All  the  other  dialects  whether  L., 
M.  or  S.  G.  do  not  know  this  change.  "  House  "  is  still  ''Tius  "  in  Bremen 
and  in  Bale.  The  new  diphthongs  are  still  kept  apart  from  the  old  ones 
in  dialect,  but  the  standard  spoken  language  recognizes  no  difference. 

489.  The  following  changes  do  not  affect  very  many  words.  They  are 
mostly  S.  G.  features  and  though  quite  old,  the  standard  and  the  common 
spoken  language  do  not  agree  upon  all  words.  The  former  favors  c  and 
t,  the  latter  o  and  it. 

1.  e,  e  >  0  in  ergo^en  (Classics  still  erge^en),  ■?)otte,  Soffel,  Sowe,  jwolf  (stand- 
ard ^»e(f),  fcf)»oren  and  a  few  others.     Rarely  e,  e  >  o  or  u  after  rot  roollen 

<  wellen  ;  roofjl  <  wEa ;  fommen  <  queman.  This  is  as  old  as  0.  H.  G., 
however. 

3.  i  >  ii  in  |)ulfe  —  ^ilfe;  fprit^en  —  fprt|ctt;  rourbtg;  roiigte;  ©pnc^roort  — 
(^^jru^roort.    i  <  it  in  roirfen  +  work  and  ^'tffeni  but  also  still  il'itffen  +  cushion. 


226  HISTOET   OF  THE  LANGUAGE.  [490- 

3.  a  >  5,  D|nma(|t,  folk-etymology  for  D^mac^t  <  dmalit ;  too  <  wd  ;  otjne 

<  dne;  !Wonat  <  mdnot;  and  Do^le  <  tdhele.    Compare  Sa|n  and  Slrg* 

4.  Both  S.  and  M.  G.  is  u  >  o,  u  >  o,  regularly  before  modern  mm, 
nn  and  n  +  any  other  cons,  but  see  125,  1. 

Ex.:  Past  part,  and  pret.  subj.  of  Class  III.,  2.;  Sonne  <  wunne;  fromm 

<  vrum;  fonber  <  funber  ;  umfonfl  <  umhesus ;   ©o^n  <  sun.     Compare 
S3ronn  (poetic),  but  33runnen  (why  u  is  not  clear) ;  Wi>xi6)  <  mlinich 

5.  Before  palatal  g,  (^  e  >  i.  By  this  -tg  and  -id)  have  become  the 
only  suffixes  instead  of  0.  and  M.  H.  G.  ec,  ae,  ech,  ach,  see  509. 

Ex.:  %\iix6i  <  fettach;  ^ranic^  <  kranech,  O.  H.  G.  chranuh ;  ferttg  < 
'certec;  ^ontg  <  Jionec. 

490.    B.  Consonants. 

1.  The  spread  of  f(^  for  f  before  I,  nt,  tt,  and  n>» 

Ex.:  (S(i^Iaf  <  sldf,  +  sleep;  ©d)Ieim  <  sVim  +  slime;  Sc^meer  < 
8mer ;  fc^meipen  <  ami^en,  +  smite;  ©(i)nee  <  sne,  +  snow;  ©d^nej^fe  < 
snepfe,  +  snipe;  ©cf)tt>ei§  <  swei^  +  sweat;  fd)n)tmmen  <  swimmen,  + 
swim.    The  Eng.  cognates  still  show  old  s. 

a.  This  is  a  S.  G.  feature,  starting  in  the  15th  century  and  extending 
over  the  M.  G.  and  the  colonized  eastern  L.  G.  dialects  (Paul).  In  the 
16th  f(^  was  substituted  for  f  after  r  in  a  few  words  and  later  still  in 
initial  fp.  jl. 

All  these  fi^'s  are  recognized  by  the  standard  pronunciation,  but  the  S.  and  M.  G. 
dialects  know  almost  no  limit  in  the  use  of  ^c^.  M.  G.  dialects  substitute  it  even  for 
^,  viz.,  mi^(^  for  xa\^.    See  391, 1. 

6.  ©  >  f(i^  also  after  r,  e.g.y  |)trf(^  <  ^i>j;  +  hart,  ^trfc^e<  /J^trse  +  cherry, 
l^errfc^en  <  Mrsen.  Since  fc^}),  f(^t  are  not  recognized  in  the  spelliDg  of 
initial  '{'p,  %  Eng.  st,  sp,  and  G.  fl,  fp  correspond :  ©tabt,  ®tatt,  ©tdtte  < 
Stat,  +  stead ;  <Spie§  <  spi^  +  spit. 

c.  This  \i)  for  f  is  not  a  phonetic  change  as  is  generally  taken  for  granted.  In  the 
transition  from  O.  >  M.  H.  G.  sc  had  become  sch  first  before  the  front  vowels,  then 
before  all  the  vowels  and  then  before  r.  sc  >  sch  before  a  palatal  vowel  is  a  phonetic 
transition  called  palatalization  due  to  the  following  vowel  and  attended  by  loosening 
of  the  contact,  and  is  known  in  Eng.  and  the  Romance  dialects  as  well.  See  Ellis' 
Early  Eng.  P*ronunciation,  p.  1154-.  The  transition-sound  was  no  doubt  the  present 
Westphalian  sjh,  a  double  sound.  At  first  only  sc  >  sch  in  the  above  order,  and  not 
B  >  Bch.    The  links  were  sk  +  pal.  vowol  >  skj  >  sjh  >  sh. 


490]  HISTORY    OF  THE   LANGUAGE.  227 

d.  Before  vowels  and  r  Q.  ft^  corresponds  to  Eng.  sh,  e.  g.,  (£cl)iff  +  ship ; 
'Scl)am  -i-  shame ;  fd)on  +  sheen ;  (S(^rot  +  shread,  shroud  ;  ®d)rein  + 
shrine.  When  Eng.  sc,  sk  corresponds  to  G.  \&j,  ff,  there  is  something 
wrong,  due  generally  to  foreign  origin  or  influence,  in  one  or  the  other. 
Compare  <3d)ule  +  school  ;  (Sc^aum  +  scum  (Norse) ;  Canbfd^aft  +  land- 
scape (D.)  ;  ©fanba'l  +  scandal  (Fr.). 

2.  5  (<  z  <  t,  see  414,  1)  >  s,  written  f,  i,  [f,  g. 

This  is  a  S.  G.  feature,  beginning  with  final  ^  in  the  13tli  century, 
spreading  over  M.  G.  L.  G.  still  like  Eng.;  notice  the  cognates.  Ex.: 
Jva<3  <  wa^  +  what ;  aui  -:  H^  +  out ;    SSBaffer  <  ica^^er  +  water ;   ^infc 

<  Mn^,  +  bentgrass.     Examples  very  numerous. 

3.  d)  =  kh  (<  old  ch,  cch  and  medial  h)  has  become  jh 
after  front-vowels  and  after  r,  1,  and  n.     See  375. 

This  transition  is  not  shared  by  S.  G.  The  Eng.  cognates  show  k  or 
silent  gh  for  I.-E.  k:  nic^t  <  niht  {■=  nikht)  +  not,  nought ;  2S5ic^t  <  wiht 
+  wight. 

a.  (^  before  s  in  the  same  syllable  >  ks,  the  same  in  Eng.  as 
early  as  Anglo-Saxon. 

Ex.:  ^uc^<3  <fuhs  +  fox  ;  ^nd)^  <  buhs-boum,  +  box;  feeing  <  seh8  + 
six;  Stc^fe  <  ahse,  +  axle  ;  2lxt  <  acchus  +  axe(t  is  excrescent). 

b.  Medial  t)  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  is  silent  now,  fe'^en,  ftc^ — jl,  but  d) 
still  in  ©efid)t;  fleitd)t  —  flie^en;  ^cd>  —  |)bber;  rau(^  still  in  9taud)n)erf,  furs, 
—  rau^;  fd)ma^en — (od)ma(!^. 

4.  nib  >  •mm,  Eng  still  mb:  Samm  <  lamp  —  lambes  +  lamb;  ,^umnter 

<  kumber,  +  to  cumber. 

5.  m  —  n,  Eng.  still  m.  93efen  <  besem  +  besom  ;  i^aben  <  fadem  + 
fathom. 

6.  w  <  bh,  the  labio-labialbh  has  become  labiodental  V  in  the  standard 
pronunciation  ;  it  has  disappeared  after  ou,  iu  (now  ait,  eu);  in  a  few  cases 
aw  >  au  ;  after  1  and  r  it  became  b,  beginning  in  the  14th  century.  Eng. 
cognates  show  a  vowel  +  some  silent  letter. 

Ex.:  neu  <  niuwe,  +  new;  [d)auer  <  schouwen  +  show;  grau  <  grd  — 
grdwes,  +  gray  ;  blau  <  bid  —  bldwes  +  blue,  due  to  Fr.  bleu,    ©erben  < 


228  HISTORY   OF  THE  LANGUAGE.  [491- 

garwen,  +  yare ;  ©d^walbe  <  swalwe,  +  swallow;  Vtaxk,  a  scar  <  narwe, 
+  narrow,  lit.  "contracted  surface;"  gelb  <  gel  —  gelwes,  +  yellow. 
Some  cases  show  doublets  due  to  levelling  in  favor  of  the  uninflected 
form :  fa^l  —  falb  <  val  —  valwes  +  fallow  ;  ©per-Ung  +  sparrow  — 
©pcrber  <  sparicaere  ,+  sparrow-bawk. 

491.  1.  Other  transitions  are  not  general  enough  to  deserve  special  mention.  It 
is  important  to  distinguish  real  phonetic  transitions  and  difTerences  between  the  two 
periods  in  the  history  of  the  language  due  to  levelling  and  analogy.  The  latter  have 
been  frequently  treated  in  the  comments  upon  the  various  inflections.  See  the  lev- 
elling in  the  declension  of  fern,  nouns,  433;  between  sg.  and  pi.  pret.,  460. 

2.  The  disappearance  of  sounds  by  contraction  ought  also  to  be  con- 
sidered, e.g.,  of  \  for  which  a  merely  orthographical  6  has  been  substituted 
(see  363,  2)  or  of  e  in  3.  pers.  sg.  pres.  of  strong  verbs  whose  stem  ends  in 
t  as  [d^ilt  <  schiltet.  Examples  of  new  sounds  are  e  between  i,  uo,  ti  and 
r  as  in  S^rauer  <  trUre,  ©eier  <  gir  ;  of  t  (b)  after  final  n  and  s  as  in  jemanb 
<  ieman,  eigcntUc^  <  eigenltche,  Dbjl  <  dbe^,  Slyt  <  ackes. 

The  German  word-stock. 

492.  The  following  sources  have  furnished  words  and  forms  older 
than  any  occurring  in  the  literatures  : 

1.  Runes,  e.g.,  the  famous  inscription  on  the  golden  horn,  which  reads 
ek  hlewagastiz  holtingaz  horna  tawido  =  I,  Hlewagastiz  (=  lee-host  ?)  of 
Holstein,  made  (the)  horn. 

2.  The  words  borrowed  by  Fins  and  Laplanders  before  the  race-mi- 
grations, when  the  latter  were  in  contact  with  the  Scandinavians,  the 
former  with  the  Goths  in  the  South,  e.  g.,  "  kunungas,"  "  king." 

3.  Words  and  proper  names  occurring  in  Latin  and  Greek  authors, 
e.g.,  the  name  "  Teutones"  would  seem  to  go  back  to  a  period  before 
Grimm's  Law  (see  Kluge's  dictionary)  ;  glesum  =  amber,  Ags.  glcere,  + 
glass  in  all  Germanic  dialects;  " cdces"  in  Caesar  =  meaning  '*  elk,"  O. 
H.  G.  elch,  Ags.  edch  ;  modern  Eng.  "  elk  "  is  reimported  from  Norse. 

4.  German  has  a  much  larger  Germanic  word-stock  than  Middle  and 
modern  English,  because  through  the  Norman  conquest  the  Komance 
was  engrafted  upon  old  English  and  so  many  old  English  (Germanic) 
words  died  out.  But  compare  the  couplets  calf  —  veal ;  deer  —  venison; 
gowj  swine  —  pork  ;  hunt  —  chase. 


493]  HISTORY  OF  THE  LAT^GTrArxE.  229 

a.  German,  never  having  had  to  accept  such  a  large  foreign  element,  has  treated 
foreign  words  very  stepmot'ierly.  English  welcomes  every  stranger,  at  least  our 
large  dictionaries  do,  which  contain  as  much  as  ten  per  centum  of  words  that  are 
no  more  English  than  they  are  German.  A  German,  seeing  such  a  dictionary  with 
colored  flags,  steam-engines,  animals,  and  what  not,  takes  it  for  an  encyclopedia.  In 
German  a  foreign  word  has  to  undergo  a  long  period  of  probation  before  it  is  accepted 
in  the  language  and  in  the  dictionary.  Foreign  words  are  collected  mostly  in  the 
^'' Fremdwdrterbiich,''''  i.  e.,  Dictionary  of  foreign  words. 

493.  The  first  larger  influx  of  foreign  words  into  German  came 
through  contact  with  Roman  civilization,  e.g.,  ©trapc,  9)fafl,  ^dfe,  ^ud)e, 
^ctte,  SJlunje,  better,  ^enfter ;  the  second  through  Christianization  :  ^ir(i)e, 
fajlei'cn,  ^reuj,  (Sngel,  ^Jnej^er^  9^faffe,  ^Jrebigcn,  and  a  great  many  others. 
These  and  other  foreign  words  of  the  O.  H.  G.  period  were  quite 
thoroughly  Germanized.  They  took  part  in  the  shifting  then  going  on 
and  their  accent  was  put  upon  the  stem-syllable. 

1.  In  later  0.  H.  G.  and  in  M.  H.  G.  the  chief  source,  from  which  foreign 
words  came,  were  the  crusades  and  the  institution  of  chivalry  ;  in  later 
M.  H.  G.  and  early  N.  H.  G.,  the  revival  of  learning  and  the  thirty  years 
war,  e.g.,  ^oXoJ^,  %\\xAi,  S^ourni'er,  S^^ron;  in  fact  all  older  nouns  in  -ie'r  and 
verbs  in  -ie'ren.  Schiller's  Wallenstein  has  many  foreign  words,  e.  g., 
5lrm'6rujl;  malebei'en;  9)anier,  9)ulver,  9)ult. 

2.  In  the  last  200  years  Germans  have  taken  up,  as  all  nations  have  done, 
a  large  number  of  words  from  Greek,  Latin  and  the  Romance  languages, 
words  which  the  progress  of  civilization  calls  for.  But  beginning  with  the 
M.  H.  G.  period  German  has  not  been  able  to  change  the  foreign  accent, 
e.g.,  the  verbs  in  -te'rcn,  even  when  this  ending  is  added  to  German  words  as 
^ofieren,  fiol^ieren,  ^uftcren ;  ?WeIobet'  or-bie',  SSajIei',  Sataillo'n,  35aaa'be,39alfo'n, 
9)afie'te  ;  the  many  nouns  in  -ie'.  Compare  English  which  changed  in  its 
middle  period  the  accent  of  nearly  all  Norman-French  words,  e.g., 
reason,  season,  melancholy.     Later  te'legraph,  but  German  ^ekgra'p^. 

a.  There  has  sprung  up  since  1870  a  tendency  in  high  oflQlcial  circles  to  banish  foreign 
words,  but  it  is  not  likely  to  meet  with  much  success.  The  military  system  uses  hun- 
dreds of  them  still. 

The  Postmaster-General  of  the  German  empire  objected  to  Sletep^o'n,  because  he 
could  not  decide  upon  the  gender,  and  so  ,,5ernfprec^er''  was  made  the  official  word.  A 
letter  to  be  called  for  must  have  on  it  ,,'P^'fHv!v3ernb,"not  "poste  restante"  as  formerly. 

3.  One  more  large  source  of  borrowed  words  has  to  be  mentioned 
wliich  began  as  early  as  the  15th  century,  viz. ,  Low  German  and  Dutch 
(also  English).  All  words  that  contain  "  p,"  for  instance,  must  be  either 
foreign  (9)a<)J)eI,  9>ant^er)  or  non-High-German,  because  there  can  be  no  p 


230  HISTORY   OF  THE   LANGUAGE.  [494- 

in  H.  (J.  (see  409,  2),     If  the  words  do  not  come  directly  from  Low 
German,  they  have  been  influenced  by  it  and  taken  L.  G.  form. 

Ex.:  })ufen,  })ujlcn,  ^oit,  9)ojl,  glatt,  9)Iunber,  SSappen.  Words  in  qq, 
U;  ^hU,  (Sgge,  dioQQZ,  Stagge,  SSagger,  flitgge. 

4.  Notice  the  many  shipping  terms :  ^tagge,  S3orb,  S3oot,  <Spriet,  Sed, 
SBratf,  <Ste»en  (»  =  ro).  Words  in  -d)t  for  ft,  e.g.,  fa^t,  H.  G.  fanft ;  ©d^ac^t, 
H.  G.  (S(i)aft;  (Si^lu(|t  for  ©c^luft.  The  ending  -c^en  is  Low  and  M.  German  ; 
-lein.  South  German.     %ttt  for  fetjl  is  L,  G. 

494.  A  small  group  of  words  was  introduced  twice,  but  at  different 
periods,  e.g.,  9)fal5  (0.  H.  G.),  ^aW\i  (M.  H.  Q.Xpalatium,  but  see  Kluge's 
Diet.  3arge  (0.  H.  G.),  Sartfd^e  (M.H.G.)  +  Eng.  target  <  V.  L.  targia  (if 
this  is  not  originally  German  and  belongs  to  the  next  group).  9)?el{)bei  was 
really  borrowed,  9)?eIobie  is  a  later  doublet  after  the  many  nouns  in  -ie. 
ScHen  +  to  fail,  fallieren,  to  fail  (in  business)  <  F.  faillir. 

1.  Compare  Eng.  frail  and  fragile  ;  quite  —  quiet ;  exploit  —  ex- 
plicite.  Many  originally  German  words,  adopted  by  another  language, 
are  borrowed  again  in  a  foreign  form  :  SKagen  —  iBaggon  +  Eng.  wain 
—  wagon;  ©pion  <  fpat)en  —  German  (Spacer;  S3tS)Duaf  <  6C«c«cA^,  33e{tt)ac^t ; 
bie  ®arbe,  bie  ©arbetol^e  +  guard,  +  wardrobe  <  warta,  warten  —  bie  SBartc, 
ber  Sart  +  ward ;  ©turf  <  Ital.  stucco  and  this  from  G.  ©tiicf ,  O.  H.  G. 
stucchi. 

2.  Besides  isolated  and  obscure  German  words  a  large  number  of  for- 
eign words  are  exposed  to  "  folk-etymology,"  because  they  are  not  under- 
stood. These  have  been  collected  by  Andresen  in  his  "  deutsche  Volks- 
etymologie."  (See  also  Palmer's  Folk-etymology),  ^eberld)  <  L,  hede- 
racea,  ground-ivy.  Slbenteuer  (archaic  spelling  even  ?tbenbteiier),  <  M.  H.  G. 
aventiure  <  Rom.  aventure. 

3.  SUielfrap/  wolverine  <  l^orse  fjaUfress^moutsdn-henT,  as  if  it  were  a 
great  eater  ;  <SunbfIut  as  if  from  Sunbe  and  ^lut,  "  the  flood  that  came  on 
account  of  sin,"  but  it  is  from  <Sln  —  meaning *' ever,"  "  universal"  as  in 
Singrun,  evergreen,  geumunb  as  if  it  meant  wCugcnniuiib"  or  wlCcutcmunb;"  but 
<  IiHumunt,  hlium,  in  which  -munt  is  suffix,  "  hliu"  <  the  same  root  as 
laut,  loud  +  Gr. /cAvw.  See  9J?aultPurf,  400.  Compare  Eng.  causeway  < 
O.  Fr.  chaucie  <  L.  calciatam  {viam) ;  country-dance  <  counter-dance, 
Fr.  contredanse. 

Hiindreds  of  examples  will  be  fonnd  in  Andresen  and  Palmer's  collections.  The 
words  in  494,  494, 1,  have  never  been  coUecteu. 


496]  WORDFORMATIOif.  231 


D.    WORDFORMATIOK 

This  chapter  does  not  contain  a  complete  German  etymology.  It  aims  merely  at 
giving  a  brief,  practical  survey  of  the  derivation  of  German  words  for  students  who 
know  a  little  English  and  Latin.  A  knowledge  of  the  older  forms  of  some  Germanic 
dialects  cannot  be  expected  from  the  student.  For  practical  reasons  only,  the  follow- 
ing subdivisions  of  the  chapter  are  made. 

495.  We  may  distinguisli  four  ways  of  forming  and  deriv- 
ing words  : 

1.  By  ablaut  without  derivative  suffix,  see  496,  1,  3. 

2.  By  suffixing  some  element  which  was  once  perhaps  an 
independent  word. 

3.  By  prefixing  such  element. 

4.  By  composition  of  independent  words. 

496.  The  pronouns  have  roots  peculiar  to  themselves  and  many  adverbs  are  formed 
from  the  pronominal  roots.  Nouns  (that  is,  substantives  and  adjectives)  and  verbs 
had  probably  the  same  roots,  though  it  is  customary  to  speak,  in  contrast  to  pronomi- 
nal roots,  only  of  verbal  roots,  from  which  nouns  were  formed  later.  We  count  as 
primitive  all  strong  verbs  and  those  nouns  which  have  no  apparent  derivative  suffix. 
From  a  Vb'xnd',  in  which  x  represents  the  vowel  that  is  to  appear  according  to  the 
various  ablaut-grades,  both  nouns  and  verbs  were  formed.  In  G.  T  this  root  would 
be  bxnd.  It  furnished  binden,  band,  gebunden,  ba§  ^anb,  ter  93unb,  ber  93anb,  ba§ 
a3unb  (for  93iinbel).  Both  nouns  and  verbs  had  their  stem-sufflxes,  of  course.  These 
made  them  into  words.  Roots  are  to  the  etymologist  what  x,  y,  z  are  to  the  mathe- 
matician. They  are  something  unreal  and  abstracted  from  the  actual  phenomena  of 
languages.  No  one  ever  spoke  in  roots.  In  a  word  we  distinguish  the  stem  and  the 
inflections.  The  stem  minus  the  stem-suffix  is  the  root.  Of  every  root,  noun  and 
strong  verb  are  not  now  extant,  for  instance,  tieB,  Sob,  but  weak  verbs  by  means  of 
the  suffix  jo—je,  were  formed  from  the  same  root,  I.  E.  Vlxub'.  G.  T.  Vlxub,  e.  </., 
(g)tau6cn,  lo&en.  x  appears  as  e—i  in  lieB,  SieBe  <^^oJa,  H'eub-  ;  as  a  in  (g)IauBett,  (er)Iau 
ben  ;  it  disappears  in  2ob,  Io6en,  the  weakest  or  zero  stage  of  ablaut.    See  394. 

1.  Formed  by  ablaut  alone,  we  consider  strong  verbs,  nouns  of  the  same  roots  and 
nouns  from  roots  that  may  have  no  strong  verb  extant. 

2.  The  stem-suffix  may  have  been  o,jo,  i,  u,  d,jd  (fem.),  etc.  We  are  inclined  to  look 
up*on  the^o-stems  as  derivatives  because  they  suffered  umlaut,  e.g.,  Siirge,  ©efdju^. 
There  is  some  reason  for  this  because  ^■o,Ja,  wo,  wd  are  not  primary  stem-suffixes,  but 
for  our  purposes  there  is  no  harm  in  confounding  the  primary  and  secondary  suffixes. 


232  WORDFOEMATIOIs^ — SUBSTANTIVES.  [497- 

3.  Examples  of  tlie  derivation  of  verbs  and  of  substantives  by  ablaut 
alone. 

I.  ablaut-series:  :6ct§en,  ber  S3i§;  reic^,  ^Jeib.  II.:  fd)Uepen,  bag  8(^Io§, 
ber  @c^lu§;  triefen,  ber  Zxo);>f,  bie  3:raufe;  bag  2o^,  bie  IHicfe.  III.:  fc^tvimmen, 
ber  8v1)wamm,  ber  ©umpf  (?),  bie  Sc^wemme;  ber  od)lunb,  ber  WmQ.  TV.:  bcrgem 
ber  SSerg,  bie  ^Surg,  ber  ©iirge  ;  fc^allen,  fd^eflcm  ber  ©c^atl.  V.:  geben,  bie  ®abe 
(rather  geba),  gebe  or  ^dU  (adj.).  VI.:  graben,  bag  ®rab,  bie  ®rube;  ic^  mup, 
ber  ^a^n,  bag  |)u^n. 

To  the  G.  T.  a  —  6  series  :  t^un,  getban,  bie  Z^aU    See  476,  2. 

Derivation  of  Substantives 

497.  Derived  by  a  late  ablaut,  also  directly  from  a  weak 
verb. 

Ex.:  !Der  <Sd)unb  <  fc^inben,  —  refuse ;  ber  S3efel)l  <  befef)len;  ber^anbel  < 
lianbein  ;  bag  Dpfer  <opfern  ;  ber  Slrger  <  cirgern.  Feminines  in  -e  :  bie 
SBinbe  +  windlass  <  wiubcn;  bie  ^^a^re  +  ferry  <  vern  <  faran. 

498.  Derivation  by  Vowel-Suffixes: 

1.  e  <  i  formed  from  adjectives,  all  feminine,  e.g.,  ®rij§e  <  gro§;  .^o^c 
<  ^od)  ;  (Sd)Dne  <  fd)on'';  23dlbe  <  balb  (now  only  adverb) ;  ®iite  <  gut  — 
guoti  <  guot.     i  produced  umlaut. 

2.  e  <  i  <jo  ^^irte  <  |)erbe. 

3.  ei  <  ie  <  Romance  ie,  ia,  always  with  chief-stress 
upon  it,  at  first  only  in  foreign  words,  then  spreading  very 
rapidly  in  N.  H.  G. 

It  is  attached  most  frequently  to  nouns  and  verbs  ending  in  -el,  -er, 
-en,  so  that  the  ending  was  felt  to  be  -erei,  e.  g.,  Bauberei',  5lrjenei',  ^eud)elei, 
Sagcrei.  It  denotes  also  a  place  of  business  :  2)rucferei,  Sadferei.  It  im- 
plies a  slur,  3uri|lerei,  ^inberci. 

4.  it  only  in  foreign  words.  It  is  the  later  form  of  ia,  ie, 
and  the  nouns  were  formed  after  i  had  become  ei. 

Ex.:  9l|lronomic',  ®e^ogravbie'.  Sbe^clcgic',  etc.  -ie  has  crowded  out  the 
older -ei,  or  they  appear  together  with  a  difference  of  meaning.  2}?eIobei 
—  Welobie,  both  mean  "melody  " ;  9)artei  =  party,  faction  —  3>artic  =  game, 
match,  company,  excursion;   3J^antafei  4-  fancy,  —  ^^^antafic  -I-  phantasy. 


500]  WORDFORMATION — SUBSTANTIVES.  233 

Derivatton  by  Consonant  Suffixes, 

499.  Liquids  and  their  combinations. 

1.  generally  el  <  O.  H.  G.  ul  {at),  il.  il  produces  umlaut. 
It  is  weak  or  unaccented,  -j-  Eng.  le,  +  L.  -ul-us.  Majority 
of  substantives  are  masculine. 

Ex.:  1.  I  <  ul,  al :  bcr  ©ta^l,  baa  33eU,  ^m\,  bie  ©eele. 

2.  er  (<  vl,al)\  ber  Banbel,  SJtaitQel,  9?akl,  ©c^nakl,  ©attel,  ^iM\  bie  ?5a(fel, 
©urgel,  SBurjel,  gafel,  ©d)aufel. 

3.  el  <  ^7,  Most  of  them  denote  means  and  instruments  like  the  fem- 
nines  <  ul,  al. 

Ex.:  ber  SBeutel,  SBiittel  (  +  beadle),  Soffel,  ^egel  +  cudgel  (?),  ©c^tuflet, 
^rmel,  Bugel.     These  are  very  numerous. 

4.  el,  +  Eng.  -le,  sign  of  diminutives,  <  ila,  Hi.  Neuter  gender.  A 
S.  Gei-man  favorite  from  old  times,  now  le,  I,  see  Goethe's  famous  ©c^weij^ 
erlieb. 

Ex.:  SBiinbel,  S3ud)el,  Olinbel.    Proper  names :  griebel,  3ac^erl. 

5.  el  in  foreign  words  :  bie  Drgel  <  V.  L.  organa  ;  Sleufel  <  duX^oloq  ; 
baa  Siegel  <  L.  sigillum ;  ber  (£fel  <  L.  asinus ;  ber  ^iimmel  <  L.  curai- 
num. 

500.  (  combined  with  other  suffixes. 

1.  with  s  in  fel  (weak  accent),  fal  (secondary  accent)  <  sal,  is  +  al, 
generally  producing  umlaut.  Gender  prevailingly  neuter,  but  also  a 
few  fem.  and  very  few  masc. 

Ex.  of  -fel:  ber  2Bed)fel,  baa  JRdtfel,  llkrMeiKel,  |)a(ffel. 

Ex.  of  -fal:  baa  ©c^icffal,  baa  ?abfal,  baa  ©(i^eufal,  bie  ©aumfal,  bie  2;riiK<il» 
Some  have  double  gender. 

2.  -lein  <  U  +  in,  secondary  accent,  very  numerous,  produces  umlaut, 
noun  always  neuter.   See  493,  4.    Now  only  in  solemn  diction  and  poetry. 

Ex. :  ^inblein,  Sammlein,  SJ^cigblein,  <S5l)ttlein,  etc.  -el^en  is  rare :  23u(i^el(^en, 
F.  3779. 

3.  -ling  <  ul^  U  -^  ing,  +  Eng.  -ling,  weak  accent,  often  with  a 
depreciative  force.  Its  second  element  was  at  first  only  added  to  nouns 
in  -1,  then  -ling  became  the  suffix. 


234  WORDFORMATIO^— SUBSTANTIVES.  [501- 

Ex.:  trembling,  ^inbling  +  foundling;  Sungling  +  youngling;  SBi^ling, 
©ciumling;  ^Wietling,  hireling;  ©dugUng  +  suckling;  (Sc^opUng,  Bn^illing. 

a.  -Ungen  (en  is  Dative  pi.)  forms  many  names  of  places,  ^amelingen, 
©ra^elingen. 

4.  ler  <  I  +  er  is  a  quite  modern  suffix.  For  er,  see  507, 1.  It  started 
with  nouns  that  came  from  verbs  in  -eln  or  nouns  in  -el. 

Ex.:  ^uniller  <  funfteln  ;  (Sd^meic^ler  <  fii^meic^cln  ;  but  ^dii^Ier  <  ^au*?^ 
S^ifc^ler  <  Sifd).    Implies  a  slur,  e.g.,  0lec^tler  <  0lec|t.   Comp.  Eng.  hostler 

<  hostel. 

501.  em,  m,  am,  en  <  em.  Of  these  m,  en  are  unaccented 
and  form  no  syllable ;  -em  has  weak  accent,  am  has  second- 
ary. <  O.  H.  G.  m,  imij  am,  +  Eng.  m,  om.  For  em  >  en, 
see  490,  5. 

Ex. :  ber  S3aum,  +  beam ;  %xa\xm,  +  dream  ;  3(ium  +  team  ;  ©c^warm 
+  swarm  ;  ber  5ttem  (Dbem,  the  biblical  form),  23robem  ;  ber  23oben,  ber 
aSufctt;  ber  t^aben,  ber  SSefen  ;  ber  ©ibant,  ber  SBrofantr  in  which  am  has  been 
restored  in  place  of  older  -em.  ha^  SBittum  belongs  here,  but  turn  has 
crept  in  for  older  "  widem,"  as  shown  in  the  verb  Wibmen. 

m  is  a  suffix  in  -tum  <  l^d'a,  see  515,  5. 

602.     en,  n,  <  O.  H.  G.  an,  in  +  Eng.  en,  n,  on,  in. 

Ex. :  ber  !Dorn,  +  thorn;  ^afen,  +  haven ;  ba^  Roxn,  +  corn;  hai  Seid^en, 
+  token,  ber  2)egen,  +  thane.  Oiegen,  +  rain  ;  SSasetif  +  wain,  wagon. 
Often  lost  in  G.,  compare  ber  fRak,  +  raven  ;  bie  SSolfe,  +  welkin  ;  tiic^c,  + 
kitchen ;  ^ette,  +  chain,  en  of  inf.  is  lost  in  English.  In  G.  en  has  crept 
into  the  Nominative  and  changed  the  inflection,  see  435,  2.  In  some  cases, 
e.g.,  ^orn,  3orn  +  Ags.  torn,  n  is  the  participial  suffix  -no,  see  453,  1. 

1.  The  -en  of  the  weak  declension  really  belongs  here,  since  it  forms 
nouns  denoting  the  agent,  for  instance,  from  verbs,  ttcten,  ber  93ole,  be(J 
S3oten.     But  we  feel  it  now  as  an  inflectional  ending.     See  432. 

-ner  is  not  a  real  suffix.  Compare  ler,  500,  4  In  JRcbner  n  belongs  to 
the  stem  <  redina,  redindn.    In  others  n  is  added  by  analogy  :  ®lo(fner 

<  ®Io(fe;  ttr(^ner<tir(^e.  ^ftxim  <  poHenanua  ;  ©olbner  <  soldenanus, 
©olb. 

3.  en  <  in,  a  now  rare  diminutive  except  in  composition  in  -lein,  -c()cn. 
Ex. :  ba«  %Mtn  {%oUn)  +  filly,  foal  ;  ©diracin,  +  swine  <  G.  T.  sii ;  ba« 
^iifen  for  tiit^lein  +  chicken  <  from  the  same  stem  as  "  cock.*' 


«506]  WORDFORMATION — SUBSTANTIVES.  235 

503.  tit^,  ttiff-  forms  neuter  and  fern,  nouns,  generally 
abstract  ones  denoting  existence  and  condition,  sometimes 
place,  +  Eng.  -ness. 

Generally  from  noun  and  verb  stems,  but  also  from  adjectives :  bie 
2Bilbui(3  <  toilh,  ^injlernt!^  <  ftnfter.  It  represents  now  older  -niss-  and 
-nuss-,  Go.  -nassus,  and  generally  produces  umlaut,  -nlss,  -nuss  are 
compounded  of  ^  +  issi^  issa  and  n  +  ussi. 

Ex. :  ba^  Segrabnia,  ©efangni^/  SJermat^tni^  ;  bie  dxhviHi^,  ^enntni^, 
SSetrubni^. 

504.  in,  inn-  forms  fern,  nouns,  denoting  females,   from 

masc.  <  M.  H.  G.  in,  in,  inne  <  O.  H.  G.  innd,  in,  -f  L.  ina 

It .  regina. 

Ex.:  ®ott,  ®6ttin  ;  %Vi&j^,  ^^iid)jtn  +  vixen;  ^annoverancr,  |)anno»eranerin. 
Very  numerous.  Not  extant  in  Eng.  except  in  vixen,  Ags.  fyxen.  To 
be  translated  by  "female,"  "  she-,"  " lady-." 

1.  -in  has  become  (e)u  and  is  attaclied  to  surnames  having  the  force  of 
the  more  elegant  ^^rau  + surname  without  suffix,  e.g.,  bie  SDTuIIern  instead 
of  ^rau  9)?iitler,  bie  vSpann'^afert  instead  of  f^rau  ©pann^afe. 

505.  -nB,  ent),  (anb,  ant),  really  participial  suffix  (see  453), 
+  Eng.  -end. 

Ex.:  ber  S'veunb  +  friend  ;  i5cinb  + fiend;  SBeiganb.  champion  ;  ^eilanb,  + 
Heliand,  Saviour  ;  Sealant,  but  the  cognate  ant  is  foreign  and  lias  chief- 
stress,  e.g.,  9)iufifa'nt»  SJJinij^ra'nt.  No  participial  ending  in  ber  5lbenb,  bcr 
eiefa'nt. 

506.  -ng,  -ing,  -ung,  <  older  ing,  ung,  +  Eng.  ing,  ng, 
weak  accent. 

Ex.:  ber  |)aring  +  herring;  ber  ©chilling  +  shilling;  baiS  ^Jiefftng,  brass, 
Ags.  mdsling. 

1.  n  is  lost  in  ^onig,  +  king  ;  ber  5)fennioi  (<  pfenninc)  +  penny. 

2.  ung  forms  numerous  fem.  nouns  from  verbs.  Like  Eng,  ing  they 
denote  mostly  action.  The  suffix  is  gaining  ground.  But  Eng.  nouns  in 
ing  are  frequently  best  translated  into  German  by  an  infinitive.  Ex.: 
bie  Srfa^rung,  ^ilbung,  Beitung  +  tidings,  5lnfertigung  +  manufacture;  25er^ 
bampfunSf  evaporation,  etc.     Riding  +  batJ  9ieiten;  building,  txxi  ^auen- 


236  WORDFORMATIOK — SUBSTAKTIVES.  [507- 

3.  ing  and  ung  +  er  and  en  form  many  patronymics  and  names  of  places: 
Sl^uringen,  9)^einingen,  Jroitlringen,  3Jlol)run9cn,  .?)ornung,  ^^ibelungcn,  ^}}ccroinugcr, 
Ba^riuger,  Sot^ringer.    For  er  (see  507,  2).    -en  is  originally  dative  pi. 

507.  -er  is  of  various  origins. 

1.  It  denotes  the  agent,  <  ere  <  cere  <  dri,  +  Eng.  er,  or, 
ar}^,  +  Lat.  -arius. 

It  is  attached  to  both  nouns  and  verbs  and  is  preceded  by  umlaut  as  a 
rule, 

Ex.:  3au'6erer,  hammerer,  ©c^iilcr,  '^WXtx,  ©c^netber,  9teiter,  Slanjer.  Very 
numerous. 

a.  Borrowed  words  not  denoting  the  agent :  Bentner^  <  L.  centenariits 
+  centenary,  a  hundred  weigrht;  !Iri(|ter  <  late  L.  tractarius  (?',  funnel. 

2.  -er  denotes  origin  and  home,  attached  to  names  of  places 
and  countries.     Used  as  an  adj.  it  does  not  vary. 

It  was  originally  a  Genitive  pL,  but  of  the  same  origin  with 
the  preceding:  2:t)uringer,  33erUner,  ^nener,  ©^lueijer  ^afe, 

3.  -er  without  any  particular  force,  and  words  with  it  are 
looked  upon  as  primitive  <  r,  ur  (ar),  ir,  +  Eng.  r,  er,  re,  + 
I.-E.  -ro-. 

Ex. :  ter  3lcfer,  jammer,  ©ommer,  l^onner;  tie  5(ter,  ^eber,  Sebcr, 
©d^ulter;  ta^  ?^utter,  Se^er,  ^Better,  (Silber,  ©affer. 

4.  -ier  in  foreign  words,  e.  g.,  ter  (Eaoalier,  53arbier,  is  iden- 
tical with  er  sub  1,  but  is  of  Romance  form,  <  L.  -arius. 

For  -er  as  a  sign  of  pi.,  see  431. 

508.  Suffix  -ter,  ter. 

1.  <  tar,  forms  names  of  relationship  +  Eng.  ter,  ther,  <  I.-E.  -t-r. 
It  is  unaccented.    Ex.  ber  2}atcr,  23ruber,  bic  SDhtter,  ©c^»e|lcr,  lodjter. 

2.  <  tara,  tra,  ^Jra  +  Eng.  ter,  der.  Denotes  Instrument.  Not  numer- 
ous, unaccented.     +  L.  trum,  G.  rpov,  -f)ia. 

Ex.:  ^(aftcr,  cord;  bie  Setter  +  ladder ;  ba^  ®elaAtcr  +  laughter  ;  Safler  < 
lahstar,  lastar  <  lalian,  to  blame.     In  the  last  word  -ster  is  secondary 


511]  WORDFORMATIOI^— SUBSTANTIVES.  237 

suflSx.     It  appears  also  in  ber  ^amjler,  badger ;  bte  dl^tx,  magpie,  which 
are  of  doubtful  origin.    I^a^  i^enfler  <  Lat.  fenestra. 

ber  (ter)  as  comparative  suffix,  see  530, 

g  and  f,  Eng.  g  and  k,  it  is  difficult  to  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  stem.  Nouns 
ending  in  them  must  be  considered  primitive. 

509.  -id),  sometimes  spelt  -ig,  forms  a  few  masc.  nouns. 
It  represents  M.  H.  G.  -ech  and  -ich  <  uh,  ah  and  ih  <  uk, 
ak,  ik  -\-  Eng.  -ock,  -k.     See  489,  5. 

Ex.:  ber  S3otti(^  (+  buttock),  ber  ^abi(i)(t)  +  hawk;  ^ranic^  +  crane; 
gtttic^,  3;eppt^;  ba^  Oieific^,  Oieifig,  brushwood;  ber  Olettig  (-tc^)  +  radish  <  L. 
radic-em;  9J?oI^  <  M.  H.  G.  mol,  +  mole,  but  means  lizard,  ber  Sfjig 
(ig  for  ic^),  (  +  Eng.  acid)  <  L.  acetum, through.  *atecum{X).  9^abi'^c^en  is 
of  later  importation.  'Der  ^cifig,  ^dftd),  does  not  belong  here,  but  <  kevje 
(>  kefge)  <  L.  cavea. 

1.  -id)t  =  ic^  +  t,  for  which  see  512,  2,  forms  a  number  of  neuter  nouns 
denoting  fullness,  plenty,  frequency.  Late  suffix  of  15th  century.  2)a^ 
Dicfic^t,  +  Eng.  thicket  (but  -et  is  Romance) ;  ba^  ^e^ric^t,  sweepings  ;  bag 
9lof)rid)t,  reeds.     3)er  ^aMc^t  (see  above). 

510.  -(i)en  forms  the  common  neuter  diminutives  and  has 
crowded  out  -lein  in  the  spoken  language.     See  493,  4. 

Compounded  of  ic^,  see  above,  and  n  <  in,  in,  see  502,  2,  Always 
produces  umlaut.  Has  weak  accent,  +  Eng,  kin.  Ex. :  Da^  9Rannc^en,  + 
manikin;  Sammd)en,  +  lambkin;  aSiirmc^en/  SJicibc^en,  S5eild)en. 

b/ 1, 1,  \,  W 

511.  1.  -1?-  +  Eng.  -th,  <  G.  T.  -'th-   <  I.  E.  -'t-. 

Ex.:  Der  Xob,  +  death ;  9)?unb,  +  mouth ;  bag  (bte)  9)?a|b,  +  aftermath ; 
bie  sBubCf  +  booth  ;  bie  Siirbe,  burthen.  Not  numerous  in  German.  Where 
Engl,  forms  abstract  nouns  in  -th,  from  adjectives  generally,  G.  forms 
the  same  in  -'e :  SBarme,  warmth  ;  S^reuc,  truth;  2;icfc,  depth. 

2.  -te  <  -ida^  -idd,  unaccented;  -ot,  -ot>e,  -at,  <  -ota,  -oti, 
-uoti,  secondary  accent,  form  neuter  and  fern,  nouns. 


238  WORDFORMATIOis^ — SUBSTANTIVES.  [512- 

Ex.:  T)ie  ^rembe,  ^reubc,  ©ebcirbe,  Bterbe,  SBegierbe  ;  ba^  ®etretbe  <  ge- 
tregede  <  gitragida,  what  is  born  on  the  fields,  crops,  grain,  '^a^  ®eluBbe, 
®ebaube,  ®emdlbe. 

a.  DaiJ  ^leinob,  jewel;  bte  ©inobe  due  to  folk-etymology  after  Dbe,  desert, 
then  wilderness  =  solitude,  lone-ness.  2)er  3)Zonat  +  month  <  mdnot;  W 
^cimat,  +  home,  native  land ;  ber  Bierat,  ornamentation.  But  ^cirat,  mar 
riage  <  M  <  hiw  +  rat.  T>k  Slrmut  belongs  here,  its  ut  <  uoti,  O.  H.  G 
armuoti.  SBermut,  +  Eng.  wormwood,  has  this  suflBx,  but  its  root  i** 
doubtful,     For  -at  in  foreign  words,  see  163, 1. 

512.  -t  forms  numerous  fern,  nouns  and  a  few  masculines, 
+  Eng.  t  when  preceded  by  surd  spirants,  see  412,  2,  <  origi- 
nal t. 

Ex.:  bie  traft  +  craft;  bie  Wa6:)t  +  might;  bte  2;rtft  +  drift;  bie  ^lud^t  + 
flight;  fcer  %xo^  +  frost;  ber  ®ei)l  +  ghost;  ber  ®ajl  + guest;  bie  9)?a)l,+  mast 
(of  animals) ;  ®ift,  +  gift ;  ®ruft  -h  crypt. 

1.  This  -t  forms  other  nouns,  but  it  then  corresponds  to  Eng.  d,  rarely 
th  ;  mostly  <  I.-E.  -t-  before  the  accent,  with  which  the  suffix  of  the 
weak  past  participle  is  identical  (see  453, 1) :  bie  f^urt  +  ford ;  ber  SBart 
+  ward  ;  ©aat,  +  seed ;  Z))at,  +  deed ;  bie  glut,  +  flood  ;  bie  33litte,  bloth; 
bie  ©tatte,  ©tabt,  +  stead;  ber  SDlitt,  +mood  ;  bie  SBut,  +  wood  (mad). 

2.  Notice  the  excrescent  t,  which  the  many  nouns  ending  in  a  spirant  + 1 
encouraged,  e.g.,  ber  ©aft  +  sap;  bie  3lxt  +  axe  ;  ba6  Dbfl  <  obes;  in  -fd)aft 
+ -ship, -scape (?).  After  -d^,  see  509.  1.  In  foreign  words,  e.g.,  ber 
9)ala'jl,  +  palace ;  ^af)%  +  pope ;  ^oxa\t,  +  morass. 

3.  -jl  in  ^un\t  <  fonnen,  33runfl  <  hentten,  ®unjl  <  gtinnen  is  not  clear.  To 
call  it  "euphonic"  does  not  explain.  9trjt  <  O.  H.  G.  arzat  <  late  L. 
archiater,  but  phonetically  not  quite  clear,  ©ie  ^Wagb,  SWatb  +  maid  < 
M.  H.  G.  maget,  meit  has  the  suffix  b-t,  <  G.  T.  th,  derived  from  a  masc. 
magus, ''hoy.'' 

513.  ^,  f-  is  rare,  +  Eng.  s,  <  is-  es-. 

Ex. :  glad^g  +  flax  ;  %\x^^,  +  fox ;  Cud)^  +  lynx  (?) ;  bie  5ld)fe,  +  axle ; 
bie  ^iilfe,  pod  ;  ber  ^reb^  <  crebe^e  +  crayflsh,  due  to  popular  etymology, 
as  if  "  crayfish  "  ;  bie  SSremfe,  brake;  bie  ^orniffe  +  hornet;  bie  ®an<3  +goose. 

514.  fcb-  is  of  various  origins,  but  generally  inseparable. 

<  isk-  comes  the  frequent  adjective  suffix  -fcft  +  En^.  ish,sh,  e.g.,  ber 
^Wenfc^  <  0.  H.  G.  mennisko,  an  adjective ;  ber  %xo\<S)  +  frog  (see  Kluge) ; 


515]  WORDFORMATIOK— SUBSTAi^TIVES.  239 

SBetfc^  +  welsli.     In  ^irfc^  +  hart,  fc^  <  s,  ^.     lu    ^irfc^e   +  cherry  <, 
^ceresia  fd)  <  s.    See  525,  4. 

a.  -f(^e  is  added  to  surnames  to  denote  Mrs.,  but  is  quite  colloquial,  bie  3?etn^ari)tj|(i^e 
for  grau  SRein^^arbt,  bie  Canbi»e:^rf(^e  for  grau  Sanbioe^r. 

Nouns  Derived  by  Nominal  Suffixes,  which  can  be  Traced  to 
Independent  Words  still  Extant  in  the  Older  Germanic 
Dialects. 

For  earlier  periods  of  the  lanojuage  this  derivation  would  therefore  properly  come 
auder  the  head  of  wordcomposition. 

515.  The  suffixes  are:  -^eit,-feit,-ricb,-fd^aft, -turn.  They  all 
form  abstract  fern,  nouns,  chiefly  from  substantives  and  adjec- 
tives, except  those  in  -rid)  and  -turn,  and  have  secondary  accent. 

1.  -^eit  +  Eng.  -hood, -head.  <  0.  H.  G.  heit,  Ags.  had,  meaning  char- 
acter, nature,  rank.  In  a  few  nouns  it  means  "  a  body  of,"  and  has  collec- 
tive force.  Very  frequent :  bie  Srcil)eit  ;  ®cttt)eit  +  godhead  ;  .^inbl;eit  + 
childhood  ;  9)ienfc^^eit,  mankind ;  S^rijlcn^eit,  Christendom. 

3.  -fett  composed  of  -^eit  and  the  adjective  suffix  -ec  or  ic,  to  which  it 
was  attached  in  M.  H,  G.  First  ec-heit,  ic-heit  (>  echeit,  icheit)  > 
ekeit,  ikeit  >  keit,  feit.  -felt  is  attached  only  to  adj.  in  -bar,  -er,  -ig,  -\\d) 
and  -fam.    Very  numerous. 

Ex.:  bie  ©anfbarfeit,  ©itelfeit,  ^eiterfeit,  ©wigfeit,  ^reunblit^fett,  Sinfamfeit. 
The  derivation  from  adjectives  in  -ig  is  so  common,  that  -igtett  was  looked 
upon  as  the  suffix  and  adjectives  in  -loig  and  baft  only  form  nouns  in  this 
way  :  bte  Sbrlofigfeit,  ©trafloftgfeit,  Sitgen^aftigfeit,  iTranfbaftigfctt.  In  -ig-feit  tg 
has  been  restored  in  many  nouns,  after  it  had  helped  form  feit,  e.  g., 
©ufngfeit  <  siiezekeit ;  Swigfeit  <  ewecheit.    See  489,  5. 

a.  Mark  the  distinction  sometimes  made  between  nouns  in  -igfeit,  -feit  and  -I;cit  from 
the  same  adj.  ®ie  ^Ictnigfeit  =  trifle,  bie  ^Iein:^eit  =  littleness  ;  bte  9?eutg!eit  -  a  piece 
of  news ;  tie  S'Jeu^cit  =  newness ;  bie  9tetnU(^Ieit,  cleanliness ;  bie  Dtein^eit,  purity, 
clearness. 

8.  -ric^  +  Eng.  -ric,  -ry  <  O.  H,  G.  rich  +  L.  rex,  rfgis,  forms  a  number 
of  proper  names.  Denotes  "  powerful,"  *' commanding."  Ex.:  2Buterid)/ 
blood-thirsty  person,  tyrant ;  Sriebri(^  +  Frederic  ;  ^ctnric^  +  Henry  ;  2Be^ 
gcric^,  a  plantain,  lit.  "  ruler  of  the  way." 

a.  -"ii)  appears  in  the  names  for  certain  male  birds.  The  oldest  is  (Sntericft  +  drake  < 
endrake.  This  id  certainly  not  identical  with  the  above -ricA ,'  it  may  have  been  shaped 
after  it  on  account  of  antreche,  O.  H.  G.  antrahfio,  which  cannot  go  back  to  -ricJi-. 


240  WORDFORMATION — SUBSTANTIVES.  [516- 

©anferi(^  +  gander,  StauBeric^,  cock-pigeon,  are  N.  H.  G.  forms  after  (Sntcrid),  <  ®an?cr, 
dauber  <  ®an§,  laube.  ^^a^nrict),  ensign,  <  older  G.  mnre,  faneri,  has  -ic^  by  analogy. 
gat;ubric^  may  be  due  to  D.  vendric  (Wiegand)  <  %a^ni,  flag.  By  folk-etymology  bet 
§eberi(I),  from  L.  hederacea. 

-ret(^  comes  under  composition. 

4.  -[^aft  +  Eng.  -ship,  shape  <0.  H.  G.  scaft,  meaning  character,  being, 
creature  ;  itself  a  derivative  by  t  <  G.  T.  V'skap,  from  which  to  shape, 
fc^affen.     Forms  mostly  fern,  abstract  nouns  and  a  few  collectives. 

Ex.:  btc  i^reunbfc^aft  +  friendship  ;  ®raffd)aft,  county  ;  Canbfd)aft  -I-  Ags. 
landscipe,  -f  Eng.  landscape  (scape  due  to  D.  and  Norse  influence) ;  bie  ®t' 
[anbfc^aft,  embassy  ;  9)rie|lerf^aft,  priesthood  ;  SJcrwanbfc^aft,  relationship  ; 
©efettfc^aft,  company. 

5.  -turn  -f  Eng.  -dom  <  O.  H.  G.  tuoin,  M.  and  N.  ;  Ags.  dom  M.  +  Eng. 
doom  =  judgment,  law,  dominion,  power.  It  forms  neuter  nouns  from 
nouns,  but  neuters  and  masculines  from  adjectives.  The  nouns  are 
abstract,  but  many  denote  domain  and  place. 

Ex. :  bag  ^erjogtum  -f  dukedom ;  ^onigtum,  -\-  kingdom  ;  ^etbentum,  + 
heathendom ;  ^eiligtum,  sanctuary ;  ber  3rrtum,  error,  3ftctd)tum  +  riches. 

a.  Mark  a  difference  in  meaning  between  nouns  derived  by  means  of  ^cit,  ?d}aft,  -turn 
from  the  same  stem:  tie  Gtgentjett,  stubbornness,  peculiarity ;  bte  Gigenidtaft,  quality; 
\iii%  (Sigentum,  property ;  bie  6^rifteuf>cit  =  Christendom ;  Das  G^riftentum  =  Christianity ; 
bie  93iirgerjc^aft,  all  the  citizens ;  baS  iBurgcrtum,  citizenship  ;  bie  9Bei§^eit  +  wisdom  ; 
ba§  SBeiStum,  statute. 

Dehivation  op  Nouns  by  Means  of  Inseparable  Prefixes. 

516.  The  composition  of  nouns  by  means  of  independent  parts  of 
speech,  such  as  prepositions  and  adverbs,  will  not  be  treated  here  except 
the  composition  by  means  of  those  prefixes,  such  as  bet,  Vix,  etc.,  which  re- 
tained the  strong  form  under  the  noun-accent,  but  wore  down  to  a  weaker 
form  in  the  verb  ac<!entuation  and  thus  became  "  inseparable.*'  For  the 
principle  of  accent,  see  421.  Whenever  the  prefix  of  a  noun  is  unac- 
cented and  has  weak  form,  the  noun  is  not  old,  bat  it  is  late  and  derived 
from  the  verb,  except  in  one  case,  viz. ,  the  prefix  ge-,  g-. 

This  is  really  composition,  but  we  treat  of  the  subject  here  for  convenience. 

1.  91 B  c  r-  has  the  force,  1)  of  ober-  itber,  from  Dutch  =  excessive.  It  is 
rare.  t>zx  5(berglaube,  superstition,  bie  2Ibcra*t;  " proscriptio  superior;" 
5lbertt)i^f  conceit,  presumption,  imbecility,  is  M.  H.  G.  aberwUze,  abewitze, 
in  which  aber  =  abe,  ab.    0.  H.  G.  dvHZzi. 


Sie]  WOEDFORMATION^— SUBSTANTIVES.  241 

2)  The  force  of  again  toward,  against.  It  is  depreciative :  ber  SIBer* 
wanbel,  forfeit,  back-sliding ;  5lbernamc,  nick-name  ;  bie  5lberfaat,  second-sow. 
ing;  bcr  2l6erfaifer=®e9enfaifer,  rival  emperor.  In  this  sense  =  after  and 
both  probably  <  af,  ab  +  -ar  and  -tar  respectively. 

2.  SI  f  t  c  r-  4-  Eng.  after  :  not  the  first,  not  genuine,  second,  retro-,  false ; 
®a^  5lfter6Iatt,  stipule  (in  botany) ;  bte  Slftermufe,  false  muse  ;  bie  Sffterfritif, 
false,  second-hand  criticism  ;  Slftemclt  =  ^iac^welt,  posterity ;  5(ftermiete, 
subletting. 

3.  5(  tt  t — I-  Eng.  an-,  a-,  am-  in  answer,  acknowledge,  am-bassador, 
+  L.  ante-,  Gr.  "  uvtI.'"    Force  :  against,  opposite,  in  return,  removal. 

Ex. :  bie  Slntwort,  -i-  answer  ;  ba(3  SlntU^f  face  ;  ber  Slntlap,  absolution  ;  baiJ 
Stmt,  oifice,  court  <  O.  H.  G,  amhaht.  Go.  andbahti,  and  +  bahto,  a  servant, 
Eng.  ambassador,  embassy  <  Romance  forms  <  Low  L.  ambasta  <  0. 
H.  G.  ambaht. 

Unaccented  it  became  ent  (see  541).  Slnt-  has  in  some  really  old  nouns 
given  place  to  the  ent-  of  verbs,  e.g.,  ber  ©mpfa'ng  for  older  dntvanc. 

4.  33  e  i-,  b-  rare  as  old  prefix,  but  common  in  modern  compounds,  con- 
sisting of  preposition  4-  noun,  +  Eng.  by ;  in  verbs  ht,  +  Eng.  by-,  be-  < 
bi,  be  ;  see  Kluge.    Perhaps  related  to  Gr.  d/z^t,  L,  anribi. 

Ex.:  ba(3  33etfpiel,  example  <  bispel;  tie  S3et(^te,  confession  <  bikte  < 
bigihte  <  bi  +  jehen  ;  ber  S3etfc^laf,  cohabitation  ;  ber  SSelfap,  -\-  settler,  un- 
naturalized comer ;  SBeifu§,  wormwood.  The  weak  unaccented  form  fce- 
is  very  common  in  late  derivatives  from  verbs.  In  M.  H.  G.  appear  the 
doublets  bitraht  —  SSetra'i^t  ;  bigraft  —  begraft ;  biziht  —  beziht. 

■  5.  ^  it  r-  occurs  only  in  one  old  noun,  ^^iirfpred^,  mediator,  attorney.  In 
the  18tli  century  fitr  and  ijor  were  used  indiscriminately  and  a  great  many 
compounds  now  have  SJor-  only.     Unaccented  SSer-  sub  11. 

6.  ©rj-,  +  Eng.  arch-  means  chief,  original,  great-  <  V.  L.  arci-  <  Gr. 
upxi-. 

Ex.:  ber  SrjMf(^of+ archbishop  ;  (Srjlugner,  a  great  liar;  Srsnarr,  arrant 
fool ;  Srjfpieler,  professional  gambler. 

7.  ®e-,  Or,  the  traces  of  its  accent  are  diflBcult  to  find  even  in  the  oldest 
stages  of  the  Germanic  dialects,  though  there  are  some  in  Ags.  (found  by 
Kluge)  and  in  Go.  There  are  none  left  in  German.  It  is  always  unac- 
cented. <  0.  H.  G.  ga,  gi.  Its  connection  with  L.  cum,  con,  is  generally 
asserted,  but  is  diflBcult   to  prove.     Has  intensive,  generally  collective 


242  WORDFORMATION— COMPOUI^D   N^OUNS.  [517, 

force.    Nouns  of  the  form  ®c— e,  <  go— jo  are  almost  all  neuter  and  very- 
numerous. 

Ex.:  ber  ©laubc  +  belief ;  ber  ©efeUe;  ba^  ®lieb,  bic  ®ebulb,  bie  ®nabe;  bie 
®efa^r ;  ba^  ©ebaube;  ®etreibe;  ©efc^metbej  ®eroerk;  ©ebirge;  ©e^olje.  ®- 
appears  before  I,  r,  n. 

8.  9)t  t  §-  +  Eng.  mis-.  Force  :  negative,  false,  failure.  For  its  origin 
see  453, 1.  In  M.  H.  G.  still  an  adjective,  now  inseparable,  always  accented 
prefix.  Only  one  compound  with  its  derivatives  retains  misse-,  viz.,  SJJif^ 
fet^at  +  misdeed. 

Ex  :  Very  numerous  :  ber  SJiiprauc^,  bie  SWigcrnte,  ber  SWi§fIangf  ber  5D^i§=' 
mut,  ber  SWipgriff. 

9.  U  r  +  Eng.  or-  only  in  "  ordeal  "  and  "  ort,"  <  older  us,  ur.  Force : 
origin,  great  age,  great-.  Weak,  unaccented  form  =  er-  in  verbs  and 
their  derivatives,  u  always  long  except  in  Urteil.  ba^  Urteil  +  ordeal ;  ber 
Urfprung,  bieUrfunbej  ber  Urlaub,  ber  UrgropMter  ;  bie  Urfa^e ;  ber  Urquell. 

10.  Un  +  Eng.  un-,  of  like  force,  privative,  +  L.  in-,  Gr.  av-,  a-. 

Ex. :  bte  Unaxt,  ber  Unbanf,  bie  Ungunfl,  ber  Unirille.  In  ungefci^r  un-  stands 
for  o^ti-,  <  dn  gevcBre,  but  in  D^nmad^t,  ol^n  stands  for  D^nxci6)t  <  dmaM, 
containing  the  obsolete  a  privative. 

11.  35 er-,  fr-  always  in  this  weak  form  and  unaccented  like  ©e-. 
Traces  of  early  accent  upon  it  very  rare,  none  now,  +  Eng.  for-.  Rare 
in  older  nouns,  very  common  in  later  nouns  derived  from  verbs,  see  516, 

Ex.:  ber  35erlujl,  bie  S^ernunft,  ?^re»el  +  kgs,.  frcefele  ;  ^ra§  —  freJTen;  i^rad^t 
+  fraught,  freight  (see  Kluge's  Diet.), 

12.  3  e  r  occurs  only  in  nouns  derived  from  verbs.  See  therefore  546. 
Ex.:  bie  3erjlreuung,  3erflorung. 

a.  For  brittel,  etcrtel,  see  532, 2.  3ungfcr,  maiden  <jun,cfrouwe,  daughter  of  a  noble 
family,  ^unfcr,  young  nobleman  +  younker  <junc-herr.  3ungfvau,  virgin,  is  a  modem 
compound.  In  such  words  as  Slbler,  2Bimper,  9?ac^6ar,  ©c^ujier,  and  many  otherp,  the 
second  elements  are  no  longer  felt ;  they  are  sufllxes  to  all  intents  and  purposes. 
See  the  dictionary  for  their  derivation. 

Composition  of  Nouns. 

517.  The  second  element  is  always  a  noun,  in  a  few  cases  an  adjective, 
but  used  as  a  noun.  This  noun  always  determines  the  gender  and  inflec- 
tion of  the  compound.  The  first  element  always  has  the  primary  accent^ 
the  second  the  secondary  accent.    See  421 ;  424, 2.   The  first  element  may 


518]  WOKDFORMATION — COMPOUND   NOUNS.  243 

be  any  other  independent  part  of  speecli,  a  noun,  adjective,  verb,  adverb, 
or  preposition. 

Noun  +  Noun. 

518,  The  relation  of  the  component  parts  is  syntactical ;  the  first  ele- 
ment may  stand  in  apposition  to  the  second  or  it  stands  in  case-relation 
to  it. 

In  apposition  :  ba6  §tmmelrci(i^,  tie  ©ommerseit ;  many  names  of  plants  and  trees, 
ber  9tpfel6aum,  bic  §eibelbeere. 

In  the  G.  relation :  ber  Slugapfel,  bcr  5lDnigg?o:^n,  bic  tu^mitc^. 

In  the  D.  relation :  ber  ©d)laftruuf,  ba6  3;intenfa^,  bie  SEanjftunbe. 

In  the  A.  relation,  including  the  objective  Genitive  :  ber  2Begreetfsr,  §erjog,  9Sater« 
tnorber. 

In  the  Ablative  .relation  of  origin,  material,  cause :  bie  jjreubentljrane,  ber  2Beftn>inb, 
bie  ©ta^lfeber. 

In  the  Instr.  relation,  denoting  instrument,  means,  connection :  ber  gu^tritt,  ber 
jguffi^tag,  bie  Seimvute. 

In  the  Locative  relation,  denoting  place,  association,  even  time  :  bie  ®ad}ftube,  baS 
3a^nfletic^,  Sagewer!,  bee  gu^^olbat. 

a.  The  earliest  method  of  combining  the  nouns  was  that  of  attaching 
the  second  noun  to  the  stem  with  its  stem-suffix,  that  is,  to  the  "theme." 
The  vowels  of  the  stem-suffixes  became  e  in  M.  H.  G.  or  were  lost.  A 
later  way  was  that  of  joining  the  second  noun  to  the  Genitive  sg.  or  pi. 
of  the  first  noun.  This  way  originated  in  the  relation  of  noun  and  its 
dependent  genitive.  The  sign  of  the  G.  sg.  ^,  e^  was  then  added  also  to 
feminine  nouns,  which  of  course  were  not  entitled  to  it. 

1.  Stem  +  noun.     Composition  ^^t'oper. 

a.  With  stem-sufiix  :  ber  S^agebiebf  ber  |>ageborn,  bag  S^agelieb,  bie  S3abe=* 
reife,  ber  SBrautigam,  bie  ^ia^tigall,  bie  ©cinfeMume.  See  the  examples  with 
en  sub  2,  since  en  was  originally  stem  suffix.    See  502, 1. 

&.  Without  stem-suffix.  Very  numerous  :  ber  2DUbbiel&,  bag  Sagb^orn, 
\iCi^  Seltmeer,  \><x^  ©arten^aug,  bag  |)anbtt>erf. 

2.  G.  sg.  or  plural  +  noun.  Secondary  composition.  Case-endings  : 
/e)g,  er,  en.  en  and  er  were  also  encouraged  by  the  other  cases  in  which 
they  stood,  e.  g.,  N.  and  A.  pi.  and  in  the  other  cases  of  the  sg.  of  raasc. 
weak  nouns.  Indeed  (e)g  and  (e)n  were  gradually  looked  upon  as  connect- 
ing elements  between  two  nouns  and  crowded  out  many  compounds  of 
proper  composition. 

Ex.:  bag  ©onntaggfleib,  bag  Strtg^aug,  ber  ;Banbeg^err;  ber  ^d'uferverfauf,  bie 
^tnberle^re,  bie  9)?annern>iirbc ;  ber  S^ren^ort,  bag  ^reubenfef!,  bic  JBlumenlefe,  ber 
3)almenbaum,  geigenbaum,  ber  (Sidjennjalb,  ber  ^a^nenf^orn. 


244  WORDFORMATIO^q^ — COMPOUND   NOUNS.  [519- 

3.  ^  between  fern,  noun  +  noun.  This  began  as  early  as  the  12th  cen- 
tury. -^  is  a  favorite  after  nouns  in  t,  particularly  after  the  suffixes  -U 
-l^eit  (feit),  -fc^aft  and  -ung  ;  and  the  foreign  nouns  in  -ion  and  -tdt. 

Ex.:  ber  ©eburtsJtag;  tie  ^rei'^eit^liebe,  ^eimat^licbc ;  bcr  ^reunbfi^aft^bote; 
ba^  ^offnung^Qlitcf  (G.) ;  ber  SBei^nac^tamann,  ber  ^odyjeit^tag  ;  ba^  9)Ziffton«^ 
Jlatt,  bie  Um»erfttat<g^atte,  ber  Ciebe^brief. 

Adjective  +  Noun. 

519.  The  adjective  appears  without  stem-suffix,  but  see  522.  The 
relation  of  adjective  and  noun  is  that  of  an  attribute  or  of  apposition. 

Ex.:  bie  ©utt^at,  bie  2Bei^nad)t,  ^od)jeit;  ber  Sangbein,  ber  9)?itt('e)n)oc6 ;  bie 
5Wittfaf^en;  bie  Sungfrau,  bie  ®elbfu(^t,  bie  .Surjioeil;  ber  ©ropnmul;  bcr  ^6\t^ 

1.  In  many  compounds  the  adjective  is  used  as  noun  and  is  then  in- 
flected, generally  in  the  weak  G.  pi.:  bie  Slinben^,  bie  SlaubllummenanflaU, 
bad  ^ranfen|au0. 

2.  There  is  a  small  group  of  compounds  in  which  the  union  of  the 
elements  is  not  intimate  and  the  adjective  is  inflected,  e.^.,  bie  Sa^ngetDe'ile, 
Sa'ngwei'le  ;  ^o'^erprie'ftcr,  ber  |>o'^eprie'fter;  ©e'^eimerrat,  ein  ©e^eimerrat  (but 
also  uninflected  bet/  ein  ®e{)einirat).  SWi'tternad^t  is  a  secondary  compounJ 
for  the  older  mitnaht  +  midnight.     For  their  accent,  see  422,  1. 

520.  1.  Numeral  +  Noxjn. 

Ex.:  ber  !£)reifii§,  bad  S^ierecf*  bie  Sinteere,  ber  3»eifampf,  ber  3ttie6a(fr  bad 
3n)teUd)t  +  twilight,  bad  ©iebengejlirn,  bie  ©rjlgeburt. 

2.  Adverb  +  Noui?. 

Many  of  them  are  formed  from  compound  verbs. 

Ex.:  bie  SBo^It^at,  bie  ^erfunft,  ber  ^ingang,  bie  SBoflufi,  bie  5lu§cntt>elt,  bie 
9ii(^tanerfennung  (=  non-),  bie  Slbart,  ber  Slbgott,  ber  Singang. 

3.  Preposition  +  Noun. 

The  majority  are  formed  from  compound  verbs.  But  not  a  small 
number  are  made  directly  of  preposition  -f  noun. 

Ex.:  bie  Sfnja^I,  ber  9lmbo§,  bie  Slnfprad^c,  ber  Slufgang*  ber  SBeiname,  bcr  Sci^ 
trag,  bie  ®urd^fa|rtf  ber  2)urc()i»ruc^,  ber  ^iirwi^  or  3[^orn)i^,  bie  ®egengabe,  bie 
^interliflr  ber  Snbegrif,  ber  9Kitmcnfc^,  bcr  9?adbfoninie,  bad  9Zebcngebaube,  bie  !)?ie* 
berlagc,  bad  Dbbac^,  ber  Dberfettner,  bie  Dber^anb,  bie  Ubermac^t,  bcr  Umfreid,  ber 
Unterfa^i  bie  Unterwelt,  bie  SBortoett,  bet  253ibert»itte,  ber  Buname,  bad  3n)ifc^enfpieL 


5221  WORDFORMATIOK— ADJECTIVES.  245 

4.  Verb  +  Noun. 

Very  numerous.  A  few  with  the  connecting  vowel  -e,  which  repre- 
sents the  suffix-vowel  of  weak  verbs,  older  6,  e. 

Ex.:  ber  (Spur^unb,  ber  ©ing^ogel,  bic  ©c^reibfeber,  baiS  iCefebud^,  ber  Cek" 
mann,  bie  9iei[elufl,  ber  Cettj^ern.   (See  below.) 

a.  Osthoff  (see  his  Verbum  in  der  Nominal  Composiiion)  has  proved  that  these  com- 
pounds are  not  primitive  in  the  I.  E.  languages,  but  that  they  are  originally  com- 
pounded of  noun  +  noun,  in  which  the  first  noun  was  felt  to  be,  on  account  of  its  stem- 
suflSx,  a  verb-stem,  and  this  led  to  the  formation  of  many  compounds,  in  the  Germanic, 
Greek,  Slavic  and  Romance  languages,  by  analogy.  Thus  Seitftern,  +  lode-star,  does 
not  come  from  leiten  and  ©tern,  though  meaning  ^teitenber  ©tern,"  but  <  M.  H.  G. 
leitestem,  in  which  leite  +  lode  is  a  noun  =  guidance,  direction. 

521.  Compounds  of  more  than  two  words.  The  accent 
deserves  here  special  attention,  see  421;  424,  3. 

1.  Three  words,  but  only  two  parts:  ber  ^ei'rat^a^ntrag,  ber  9)li'tglieb<3f(^ei^n, 
bieDa'mpf-fc^i'ffa^rt,  steam-navigation,  but!Da'mpff(^tf-fa^^rt,  steamboat-ride; 
ber  ge'lbp9^-pla%  ber  ^a'nb»erfg-:6u'r[c^e,  bie  Se'ten^^erftc^erung^^'gefe'tlfc^aft. 

2.  Four  words  and  more.  These  are  not  common,  much  rarer  than 
is  generally  supposed.  D5erpoUjei'gerid)t^praribe^nt,  (Staa't^fc^ulbentttpng^^ 
fontmiffio^ni^bureaUf  office  of  the  commission  for  the  liquidation  of  state- 
debts  ;  ©tei'nfo^Ienbe'rgwerf/  ©eneralfelbmarfc^aE. 

a.  To  get  a  quick  survey  of  such  a  word,  ;  ought  to  be  inserted  once  at  least  in  the 
first  and  second  words  and  the  last  words  might  begin  with  a  capital  as  in  English. 

b.  The  capacity  of  German  for  forming  such  compounds  is  generally  exaggerated  and 
that  of  English  underrated.  The  custom  of  writing  these  long  nouns  as  one  word  is 
very  bad.  We  might  just  as  well  write  them  so  in  Eng.,  e.  g.^  Fireinsurancecompany' s- 
officBy  and  we  should  have  the  same  compound.  Official  language,  certain  schools  of 
philosophy  and  the  newspaper  are  the  main  sources  of  such  monstrosities.  Moreover, 
the  composition  exists  only  for  the  eye.  When  we  speak  we  do  not  divide  according 
to  words ;  we  speak  in  breath-groups,  see  Sweet's  Hdbk,,  p.  86-. 

3.  Similar  to  the  compounds  in  520, 4,  are  such  whole  phrases  as  ©te'II'' 
bt.tci^n,  rendez-vous;  J^^u'nic^tgu^t;  ne'erdowell ;  S^au'seni'^c^ti^f  goodfor- 
nothing. 

Derivation  of  Adjectives. 

The  comparison  of  adjectives,  and  the  past  participles  come  really  under  this  head, 
but  see  438  and  453, 1. 

f»22.    Adjectiyes  Formed  by  Ablaut. 

These  may  be  called  primitive.     See  496.    They  fit  into  the  ablaut- 


246  WOKDFORMATIOK — ADJECTIVES.  [523- 

series  just  as  substantives  and  verbs  do.  All  have  lost  stem-suflBxes 
except  the  >-stems,  still  recognizable  by  the  umlaut  and  generally  by 
the  final  e. 

Ex.:  reif,  flcif,  bi(f  ;  Iteb,  ttcf ;  l^linb,  f)o%  Wm,  fii^n,  bumm.  With  -e: 
enge,  la^t,  mitbe,  bofe,  tragc. 

Adjectives  Derived  by  Suffix. 

523.  1.  -el,  see  499,  roots  generally  obscure:  eitel  +  idle;  evil, 
iibel;  ebel(+  Athel-  Ethel) ;  bunfel. 

2.  -e  m,  see  501,  rare.     Ex.:  toaxm  -\-  warm. 

3.  c  r  <  -or,  -r,  rare,  same  as  ar  of  nouns  in  507,  3.  Ex.:  tuacfer  + 
watchful, brave  ;  Mtter  +  bitter;  Inciter,  lauter,  fdjwanger;  ftd^er  <  L.  securus. 

524.  -en,  -n,  see  502.  Very  frequent  and  of  various 
sources,  +  Eng.  en,  n. 

1 .  e  n  <  O.  H.  G.  an,  in  a  few  words  of  doubtful  origin. 

Ex. :  ekn  +  even ;  flein,  small  +  clean  ;  griin  +  green ;  f(^on  +  sheen ; 
fcitt  +  far ;  rein  <  Vhri.  It  is  late  in  alkrn  <  alwcere,  liijlern,  fd)uc^tern, 
from  adj.  in  -er,  <  -ni,  -njo. 

2.  <  in,  in.     Denoting  material,  "  made  of." 

Ex.:  golbett  for  older  giilben  +  golden  ;  njollen  +  woollen;  feiben,  silken; 
jilbern  +  silver;  lebern  +  leather. 

3.  e  r  n  <  n  +  e  r,  due  to  the  influence  of  er  in  such  nouns  as  <BHUx, 
2eber  and  of  er  in  the  plural.     Compare  -ler,  ner  in  nouns,  see  500,  4, 

Ex.:  fleinern,  of  stone  ;  pc^fern  +  flaxen  ;  t^onern,  of  clay ;  |oliern,  wood- 
en ;  nii(^tern  (?),  sober. 

4.  en  <  an,  in  <  G.  T.  -nd  in  all  strong  past  participles.  Some  fifty 
or  sixty  of  these  stand  now  "  isolated,"  that  is,  separated  from  the  verb 
still  extant  or  the  verb  is  obsolete.     See  453,  1. 

Ex.:  etgen  +  own  VII.  CI.,  gebiegen  I.  CI.  (old  doublet  of  gebiefeen),  pure  ; 
bcfcl)eibcn  VII.  CI.  (old  doublet  of  befc^ieben  I.  CI.),  modest ;  gelegen,  conven- 
ient (verb  obsolete) ;  »erlcgen#  embarrassed  (v.  obsolete);  er^aben  VI.  CI. 
(doublet  of  er^oben),  lofty  ;  beritten  I.  CI.,  mounted  ;  ofen  (?),  open  ;  trotfen 
+  dry,  <  Vdruk. 

525.  1.  -ig,  +  Eng.  -y,  represents  now  both  older  -ec, 
-ac  and  -ic.     See  489,  o. 


526]  WOKDFORMATION^ — ADJECTIVES.  247 

The  umlaut  could  occur  only  in  the  adjective  which  had  -ic.  It  is  a 
liviug  suflBx  and  new  adjectives  are  still  being  formed  with  it  from  any 
part  of  speech  except  verbs. 

Ex.:  traurtg,  Hutig,  ^auftg,  pittg,  fpalttg,  gewaltig ;  late  formations  :  ^eutig, 
l^iejig,  oMg,  bortig.  For  felig,  see  528,  2,  a.  SKanc^  +  many,  <  manec.  Its 
6)  for  g  is  L.  G.  (?). 

2.  io,  +  \x6)  =  \%l\6),  once  very  common  and  attached  where  there 
was  no  -ec,  -ic.  It  is  now  rather  adverbial,  see  554,  2,  and  rare  in  ad- 
jectives, e.  ^r.,  ewigltc^,  gnabiglic^. 

3.  -i  c^  t  <  -ehty  -oht,  -ohti,  is  more  common  in  adjectives 
than  in  substantives.     See  509. 

a.  -tg  and  -it^t  furnish  doublets,  sometimes  with  a  distinction  in  force. 
ic^t  with  t  must  be  due  to  -ig  with  t,  as  it  is  very  late. 

Ex. :  jletnic^t  +  stony,  tfortc^t,  foolish,  neklic^t,  foggy,  fla(^eli(i)t,  prickly. 
-ic^t  implies  only  a  slight  resemblance  :  blic^t,  slightly  oily  —  oUq,  oily, 

4.  -i  f  (f),  -f  c^  +  Eng.  ish  <  older  -isk-,  implies  a  bad  sense  in  contrast 
with  -lic^,  as  in  Eng.  ish  and  like.     See  514. 

Ex.:  ftnbifc^  +  childish,  finblid)  +  childlike;  Mu(e)rif(^  +  boorish,  Hmx^ 
Itcf),  rustic ;  denotes  origin  :  })reu§if(^  +  Prussian  ;  bairifc^  +  Bavarian. 
Corresponds  to  -icus  in  adjectives  derived  from  L. :  fomifd^,  logifc^,  p^ilo^ 
logtfc^.     See  514. 

5.  -e  n  b  in  the  present  participle,  see  453  ;  505. 

6.  -(e)  t,  the  past  participle,  see  453, 1. 

But  notice  those  that  we  no  longer  feel  as  participles  :  tot,  laut,  fait, 
etc.     Later  formations  :  traut,  jart. 

526.  Adjectives  derived  by  the  nominal  suffixes  -b  a  r, 
-"^aft,  -lid)  and  -fa m,  which  were  once  independent  nouns 
(see  515).    For  accent,  see  424,  1,  b. 

1.  -"6  a  r  <  M.  H.  G.  bmre  <  0.  H.  G  bdri,  <  the  root  of  the  verb  geMren  + 
Eng.  bear.  Should  have  become  -btx,  which  really  occurs  in  living  dia- 
lects, but  the  levelling  was  in  favor  of  the  full  form.  Compare  L. 
-fer-,  Gr.  <l>op6c. 

a  In  meaning  it  corresponds  to  Eng.  -able,  -ible,  -ful.  It  means, 
bearing,  producing,  capable  of.  and  is  attached  only  to  nouns  and  verbs. 


248  WORDFOEMATIOI^ — ADJECTIVES.  [526- 

The  only  adjective  towMcli  it  is  attached  is  ojfenba'r,  with  the  acc<3nt  of 
the  verbs  o^tnWxm,  geta'&ren. 

Ex.  very  numerous :  txtmhax,  separable ;  prBar,  audible ;  banfbar, 
grateful;  e^rbar,  honorable.  Ur'bar  <  M.  H.  G.  urhory  has  the  weak 
ablaut  like  the  L.  and  Gr.  forms  given  above. 

2.  -^aft,  a  participle  either  from  the  root  of  ^d^tn  +  have, 
or  L.  capere,  captus  (Kluge). 

a.  It  denotes  "  possessing,"  "  similar  to-,"  "  approaching-."  In  mean- 
ing it  corresponds  frequently  to  Eng.  -y  ( +  G.  tg),  -ful,  -ly.  It  is  attached 
to  nouns,  adjectives  and  verbs  and  is  sometimes  increased  by  -ig. 

Ex.  numerous:  fe^ler^aft  +  faulty  ;  fd)ab|aft,  harmful  ;  lt^aft  +  lively; 
fpa^^aft,  funny  ;  wa'^r^aft,  roa^r^a'ftig,  truthful,  true  :  fc^uler^aft  +  scholar- 
like, boyish ;  meifler^aft  +  masterly ;  leib^afttg,  bodily,  incarnate. 

3.  -H  A  <  M.  H.  a  lich  <  O.  H.  G.  lich,  +  Ags.  -lie  + 
Eng.  ly,  later  again  "  like. " 

Originally  an  adjective,  occuring  only  in  compounds,  but  derived  from 
the  subst.  Ags.  lie,  0.  H.  G.  lih  =  body,  form. 

a.  In  both  languages  its  earliest  meaning  is  "like"  or  "  similar  to,"  then  "appro- 
priate," "adapted,"  finally  it  became  very  frequent  and  often  without  particular  force. 

b.  The  umlaut  generally  precedes  -lic^,  but  is  not  produced  by  it.  It  started  origi- 
nally in  stems  with  i  suffix  and  spread  by  analogy.  This  is  the  most  frequent  suflix 
and  attached  to  substantives,  adjectives,  and  verbs. 

Ex.  gottlic^,  godlike ;  ritterlid^,  chivalrous ;  trauUrf),  familiar,  devoted  ; 
frofUc^/  merry  -i-  frolic ;  fierHic^,  mortal ;  betiarrltc^,  persistent ;  kgreiflic^, 
comprehensible ;  erbauUc^,  edifying  ;  glauHic^,  credible.  For  -tglii^  see 
552,  2. 

c.  er  in  leyerlii^,  fuvf^terlid),  etc.,  is  due  to  analogy.  These  lengthened  forms  have 
crowded  out  the  proper  old  forms  U^li^,  furc^tltd).  In  certain  adjectives  the  ending 
has  been  mistaken  for  -ig,  and  the  spelling  has  followed  this  notion,  abeltg,  btUig, 
unja^Iig  have  the  suffix  -It^,  but  cannot  now  be  corrected.  allma:^li(^  is  the  official 
spelling,  though  frequently  aUma^tig  is  met  with  <  aU^tmaii),  gentle,  manageable. 

4.  -fam  <  older  -sam,  originally  a  pronoun  (-f-Eng.  same), 
\-  Ags.  -sum,  +  Eng.  -some,  -f  Gr.  dnog,  +  L.  sim-ilis. 

It  denotes  originally  identity,  similarity,  but  has  now  no  particular 
force,  unless  it  be  capacity,  inclination. 

Examples  not  so  numerous,  the  suffix  has  lost  ground. 


52  WORDFORMATIOlif— ADJECTIVES.  249 

Ex.:  einfam  +  Eng.  lonesome;  langfam,  slow;  gemetnfam,  common;  ax" 
kitfantf  industrious  ;  ^etlfam  +  wholesome ;  graufam,  cruel,  +  gruesome. 

-»ott,  +  ful,  -lo^  +  less,  come  under  composition,  though  in  Eng.  they 
might  come  under  this  head. 

For  -fac^,  -faltigf  -fcilttg,  see  the  numerals  531,  1. 

Derivation  of  Adjectives  by  Prefixes. 

527.  The  prefixes  in  substantives  have  the  same  force  and 
accent  when  attached  to  adjectives,  but  only  akr,  eq-,  ge-, 
un-,  itr-  form  immediate  compounds.  Adjectives  with  the 
other  prefixes  are  derived  from  substantives,  verbs,  etc.  Ex. : 
a'fcerflug,  e'r^faut,  getreu',  u'nnii^,  n'xalt,  etc. 

Composition  of  Adjectives. 

528.  The  second  element  is  always  an  adjective  or  participle.  The  first 
element  may  be  any  part  of  speech  and  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the 
second  as  it  does  in  a  compound  noun.  Accent  and  form  of  the  first  ele- 
ment are  also  the  same.  Some  old  past  participles  without  ge=*  are  pre- 
served in  composition,  e.  g.,  trunfen,  batfen,  in  wonnetrunfen,  intoxicated  with 
delight ;  ^auoOacfen  +  homebaked,  homely. 

1.  Adjective  +  Adjective. 

Ex. :  toUfii^n,  bummbreifl ;  bunfelMau ;  '^od^miitig  <  ^JOi^mut  (see  2,  V) ;  Hau* 
augiSf  rotMrfig. 

3.  Substantive  +  Adjective. 

Ex. :  tobfranf,  *frei'bewel§,  *golbgeI&,  Ilek^franf,  womtetrunfen,  *maufetot, 
''feberleic^t,  Ue^eijoll,  gebanlenreic^,  ^offnungsJloig,  freubeleer,  toten^lett^,  »orfc^rift«=* 
liCigtg,  amt(3wibrtg,  *5Iut|ung,  ^ulbreirf>,  *felfenfejl.  In  those  with  *  the  noun 
expresses  a  comparison  and  has  often  intensive  force.  Notice  -reid§,  \t>i, 
UoU  have  almost  become  sufiixes, 

a.  Adjectives  in  -felig  are  of  double  origin. 

1.  The  real  adjective  felig,  in  the  old  sense  of  kindly,  as  in  leulfetig, 
gottfelig. 

2.  fellg  <  fal  (see  500,  1)  +  tg  t  ntii^felig,  trufcfeltg,  faumfelig  <  SJJii^fal, 
Srii^fal,  etc.    It  does  not  belong  here  at  all. 

b.  A  large  class  of  adj.  do  not  come  under  this  h^ad,  e.  g.,  :^offarttg,  e^rgeijig;  many 
in  -fuii^tig,  as  monbjiJK^tig,  j^roinb^uc^tig.  They  are  derivatives  of  the  compound  nouns 
§oifart  (  <  hdchvart^  ch  and  f  assimilated),  9JJonbju(^t,  (S^rgeij. 


250  WORDFORMATIOiq" — NUMERALS.  [529- 

3.  Pronoun  +  Adjective. 

Ex.:  felbflrebenb,  felbtlgenugfam,  felbjllo^,  etc.,  only  with  felbft-. 

4.  Verb  +  Adjective. 

Ex.:  Jvipbegierig,  benffaul;  many  witli  -ttcrt  and  -tourbig  :  banfcn^mcrt, 
lieBen^wurbig. 

5.  Numeral  +  Adjective. 

Ex.:  einaugig,  jioeierfig,  jtDeifc^neibig,  erflgeboren/  et'ngcborcn,  only  child. 

%  Adveeb  +  Adjective. 

Ex.:  ^o(^gev>riefen,  alt-,  frifd>-,  ncu-Mrfen,  tt)o:^IfeiI,  wol^lgeborcn. 

7.  Preposition  +  Adjectives. 

Ex. :  an^eifc^ig,  cin^etmifc^,  eingeboren,  native,  +  inborn ;  abfeolb,  uberflug, 
uo'rne^m,  u'ntert^an,  so'rlaut.  furlie'b  does  not  belong  here,  fiir  =  as,  ^aU", 
aU  lieb  anne^imen,  anfc^cn.     Compare  jufrie'ben/  at  peace,  content. 

Derivation  of  Numerals. 

529.  3»ei  is  probably  an  old  dual.  3ween  <  zwene  has  the  distributive 
suffix  ni,+  Eng.  twain,  twin,  +  L.  bi/d.  With  ^trp  fern.,  <  older  zwd,  ztco, 
compare  M.  Eng.  twa,  two,  also  feminine.  The  numerals,  as  far  as  10 
incl.,  can  be  easily  compared  with  the  cognates  of  other  languages  accord- 
ing to  Grimm's  and  Verner's  Laws,  clf  and  jtrtelf  contain  perhaps  a  stem 
lik,  ten,  that  appears  in  Slavic.  They  come  from  older  einlif,  zuelif.  cilf 
is  archaic.    As  to  jwolf  for  jwelf,  common  in  N,  H.  G.,  see  489, 1. 

1.  The  ending  -jig,  <  zug  +  Eng.  -ty,  differs  originally  from  je^n  in 
accent,  je^n  <  I.-E.  ^dekm,  L.  decern.     See  Verner's  Law. 

3.  ^unbert,  +  hundred,  is  compounded  of  hund  +  rath-;  the  latter  from 
the  same  stem  as  9tebe,  Go.  rathjan,  to  count,  hund  alone  means  100, 
compare  L.  centum,  Gr.  eKarov  according  to  Verner's  Law.  See  further 
Kluge's  Diet.  3;aufeitb  <  older  tdsunt,  a  feni.  noun.  It  is  not  an  L-E. 
numeral  like  all  the  others.    Root  doubtful. 

530.  The  suffixes  for  the  ordinals  are  really  the  superlative  suffixes 
-to,  -sta  Only  German  and  Icelandic  use  -sto.  jweit-  only  sprang  up  in 
the  15th  century.  Instead  of  it  was  used,  as  in  all  Germanic  dialects,  anber 
+  other,  a  comparative  in  -ter.  Com  p.  L.  alter,  anber  has  not  quite  died 
out.  Comp.  jum  erflwi,  jum  anbcrn  unb  jum  britten  WlaU,  still  used  at  auction. 
2lc^  ®ott !  wie  boc^  mcin  erjlcr  roar,  ftnb''  td^  nic^t  Iciest  auf  biefcr  SBelt  ben  anbern, 
F.  2992-3.    anb€rt^alb=one  and  a  half  ;  felbanber=lit.  himself  the  second. 


533]  WORDFORMATIOlJr — NUMERALS.  251 

i.e.,  two  of  them,  of  us.  britt-  has  the  short  vowel  of  the  stem  "  thriu" 
still  in  the  neuter  0.  and  M.  H.  G.  driu.  tt  <  dd  <  dj  as  in  Go.  ihridja, 
Ags.  thridda,  +  L.  ter-ti-us.  ber  ^unbertjle  was  in  O.  H.  G.  zehanzogdsto, 
zehamug  being  the  other  word  for  100  ;  really  "  ten  tens."  For  erf^,  \t^t, 
%m\i,  see  439,  2. 

Numeral  Derivatives  and  Compounds. 

531.  From  cardinals. 

1.  MULTIPLICATIVES  : 

SuflSxes  -fad),  -fcilttg,  e.g.,  bretfad^,  ^ierfac^,  »telfad^.  In  O.  H.  G.  -fa(|  is 
only  noun,  -fad)  expresses  a  certain  number  of  parts,  divisions,  = 
„%(x&jZX*"  -fait,- faltig,  fdltig  -h  -fold,  expresses  also  variety  besides  quantity. 
It  comes  from  the  same  stem  as  the  verb  falten  +  fold,  and  is  quite  old. 
-fait  is  archaic  now.  bopJ)elt  + double,  is  <  French,  t  is  "excrescent"; 
in  compounds  t  does  not  appear  :  1)oppelabler,  !l)0|3^elganger. 

i»ie-  in  jtuiefad),  jtuiefdttig,  comes  from  older  zwi,-\-Grr.  6i-^  L.  bi-. 

2.  Iteratives  : 

-ntal,  rare  -ftunb,  et'nmal,  jwei'mal,  brei'mal,  manAmal  ;  etnma'l,  "  once 
upon  a  time."  -mal  is  the  noun  SJla^l  +  meal,  O.  H.  G.  mdl.  Notice  waber- 
mali^)",  once  more,  adverb  „abtx"  =  "  again  ; "  ein(mal)  fiir  allemal.  „tm^" 
+  "  once,"  is  seemingly  the  neuter  N.  or  Ace.,  but  it  is  a  Gen.  <  older 
**eines,"  form  which  einjl  with  excrescent  t,  +  once,  "oust."  «ein^"  is  now 
rare  and  so  is  wftunb."  Uhland  has  waflllu'nb"  =  all  the  time,  ©tunb  and 
balb  are  isolated  now  ;  mal  is  plaral,  being  neuter  (see  176). 

J  tt)  t  c  r,  now  rare,  comes  from  older  zwiro,  zwirdr  (r  <  ?) 

532.  From  the  ordinals  : 

1.  Adverbs  like  cr|lenig,  xttjeiteiK^,  etc. ,  see  555,  2. 

2.  Fractions  by  -tel  <  %t\\,  Drtttel,  SUiertel,  ^unftel,  one  t  is  lost  in 
writing,  Bwanjigftel.  They  are  neuter,  of  course.  «1)rttteil",  the  full  form 
is  now  archaic.  «Btt)eitel"  has  not  come  up  on  account  of  the  late  origin  of 
„jtt)eite,«  „anbert^alb"  is  used,  see  530.  Notice  ber  3tt>eitle^te,  next  to  the 
last ;  ber  ©rtttle^te,  third  from  the  end. 

See  also  syntax,  226-229. 

533.  Variatives  are  formed  by  -lei  <  M.  H.  G,  leiey  fem.  meaning 
"  kind,"  probably  <  Romance.  The  numeral  preceding  it  is  inflected  like 
an  adjective,  manc^erlei  (G.),  »ielerlei;  »iererlei,  four  kinds,  etc.  But  the  com- 
pound is  invariable. 


252  WORDFORMATION — VERBS.  [534^ 

Derivation  and  Composition  of  Verbs. 

534.  As  primitive  are  regarded  all  strong  verbs  except  prcifen,  ^c^veifeen,  which  are 
foreign,  and  a  large  number  of  weak  verbs,  which  are  either  very  old,  such  as  i)ahen, 
fragen,  or  they  are  those  whose  origin  is  obscure  or  whose  stem  no  longer  appears  in 
other  primitive  parts  of  speech,  e.  g.,  ^olen,  ^offen.  All  other  weak  verbs  are  derivatives 
except  the  originally  strong  that  have  become  weak,  e.  g.,  walten,  ma^Ien,  6eben  (see 
Kl.).  They  are  derived  from  other  parts  of  speech  by  means  of  c,  the  connecting 
vowel  representing  older  e,  o,  e,  which  unites  the  verbal  inflections  with  the  root  or 
with  those  words  from  which  the  verb  is  derived.  (This  e  may  drop  out.)  The  con- 
necting vowel  i  or  j  ( <  jo)  produced  umlaut,  which,  since  the  j  claps  was  by  far  the 
largest  of  the  three  classes  of  weak  verbs,  was  soon  used  through  analogy  as  a  com- 
mon means  of  deriving  verbs  after  umlaut  had  ceased  to  work.  Besides  the  vowel  e, 
there  occur  certain  secondary  suflSxes,  some  of  which  have  a  peculiar  force. 

535.  1.  Derivation  with  umlaut  due,  a,  either  to  an  old  i 
or,  6,  to  analogy,  or,  c,  to  the  fact  that  there  was  an  umlaut 
abeady  in  the  noun-stem. 

a.  A  large  number  from  strong  verbs  of  the  II.,  III.,  IV.,  V.,  VI.  ab- 
laut-series with  the  strong  ablaut,  i.e.,  with  the  vowel  of  the  pret.  sing., 
and  from  the  reduplicating  verbs  with  the  vowel  of  the  infinitive, 
e.g.,  flopen  <  fliepen,  flop,  gejioffen  <fl6^^an  <  *fl6tjan,  to  cause  to  float,  II.; 
fenfen  <  jtnfen,  fanf,  gefunfen,  <  senken  <  *8ankjan,  to  cause  to  sink,  III., 
ja^nten  +  tame  <  zemen  <*zamjan,  this  <  zemen,  IV.,  now  a  weak  verb 
jtemen;  legen  <  liegen,  Uq,  gelegen,  <  *lagja7i  +  lsiy,  V.;  fii^ren  <  fa^ren,  fu:^r, 
gefa^ren  <  meren  <  fuorjan,  VI,,  to  cause  to  go,  to  lead  ;  fatten  <  fallen,  fiel, 
gefatten,  <  M.  H.  G.  fellen  <  *falljan,  to  cause  to  fall,  +  fell ;  fiird^ten  < 
%m^i ;  lal^men  <'  la'^mj  tijten  <  tot ;  trojien  <  Hrostjan  <  trost  +  trust. 

b.  pfliigen  <  9)flu9»  Brd'unen  <  kaun;  xa|ncn  <  3a^n;  ^affen  <  l>aff !  ;  raumen 
<  fRanm  ;  offnen  <  offen. 

c.  grunen  <  griin  ;  tritben  <  truBc. 

Rem.  1.  If  the  strong  verb  is  intransitive  then  the  derivative  is  transitive  or 
causative ;  if  transitive,  then  the  derivative  is  intensive  or  iterative,  e.  g.,  fdjrcemmen  < 
fdjnjimmcn,  to  cause  to  swim;  fe^en  <  fifeen,  to  cause  to  sit ;  6eten,  to  pray,  <  6tttcn  (?), 
to  ask  for.  The  same  principle  prevails  in  English :  to  fall  —  to  fell,  to  lie  —  to  lay,  to 
drink  —  to  drench. 

Bern.  2.  j  (or  i)  has  caused  certain  changes  in  the  final  consonants  of  the  stems 
because  these  were  doubled  before  the  "lautverschiebung,"  and  when  doubled  they 
shifted  differently  from  the  single  consonants.  For  instance  in  irecfcn  —  rcadjcn,  bcrfen 
~'Da^,  d  <kk  <  kj,  but  e^  <k;  in  a^en  — effen,  Beijcn  —  iet^en,  f(i)nifecn  —  fd^nctbcn, 
l^e^en  —  ^a%  3,  ^  <  tt,  tj.  but  ^  <  t.  Similarly  jd)Dpfen  (for  y^cpfen)  —  fcljaffcn  ;  I;enfen  — 
l^antjen,  compare  Eng.  henchman  ;  btcgcn  —  biidcn  ;  ?($nitcgcn  —  ^(i^miiden  ;  gcf(^el;cn  — 
fi^iden.    Compare  also  Eng.  drink  —  drench ;  stink  —  stench. 


537]  WOKDFORMATION — VERBS.  253 

2.  Derivation  by  e  without  umlaut. 

These  are  late  or  if  old,  absence  of  umlaut  is  due  to  the  fact  that  cer- 
tain vowels  did  not  suffer  umlaut  in  certain  positions  or  that  the  con- 
necting vowel  was  e  or  6. 

Ex.:  k^nen  <  SSa^n,  fu^en  <  %\i^,  atfern  <  3l(fer,  formen  <  %oxm,  altern< 
9lUer.  Older  are  htttn  <bet6n  <  beta,  prayer;  faffett  <  fa^^on  <fa^;  fafleit 
<  faston  <  fasta;  bulben  <  dulten  <  dult.  Notice  the  dijBference  between ; 
brucfen,  to  print,  briidfen,  to  press ;  franfen,  to  be  ill,  frcinfcn,  to  grieve  ;  xooX" 
jcn,  to  roll,  technical  as  in  a  rolling-mill,  Bjaljen^  to  roll,  revolve  ;  erfalterif 
to  grow  cold  —  erfaltertf  to  take  cold. 

536.  Derivation  by  e  preceded  by  a  suffix,  but  e  drops  out 
after  (  and  r. 

1.  -&)iv.,  intensive  force,  rare:  '^ord)en,  listen  +  hearken  <  foren  +  hear; 
[c^nard)en  +  snore  <  fc^narren. 

2.  -eltt,  always  preceded  by  umlaut  if  attached  to  other 
verbs.     It  is  also  attached  to  substantives  and  adjectives. 

It  has  intensive,  iterative  force  and,  from  association  with  tlie  noun- 
suffix,  diminutive  and  hence  derisive  force.  Numerous  in  N.  H.  G.  on 
account  of  the  many  nouns  in  -el.     Generally  umlaut. 

Ex.:  Betteln-f-beg(?)<  :6etett,  Bitten,  pray,  ask ;  fd^meic^eln,  flatter <  fc^metc^en 
(rare),  smooth  ;  lact)eln,  smile  <  lac^en  + laugh  ;  froinfcln,  be  sickly  <  franfen, 
be  sick  ;  frojleln,  to  feel  chilly  <  ^roj^;  liebeln,  to  dally  <  Ueben,  lieB;  from^ 
meln,  cant  <  fromm,  pious;  |anbeln,  to  trade  <  |>anb. 

537.  1.  -tten  +  Eng.  -n,  on  (rare). 

Ex.:  bienen,  from  the  same  stem  as  ®e-  in  ©emut;  lernen  <  the  same 
stem  as  le^ren;  rec^nen  <  O.  H.  G.  rehhanon,  +  Ags.  recenian;  warnen,  -t- 
warn,  <  same  stem  as  warren  (?) ;  ijerbammen,  -t-  condemn,  also  contains 
-n  <  M.  H.  G.  verdamnen,  but  <  L.  damnare.  Compare  jeic^nen  <  Beic^en 
+  token,  regnen  <  9?egen  -i-  rain,  in  which  u  belongs  to  the  noun,  see  502. 

2.  -em,  -f  Eng.  -r,  has  intensive,  iterative,  and  causative 
force.  Rarely  preceded  by  umlaut ;  not  unfrequent  both  in 
Eng.  and  German. 

Ex.  :  di^ern  +  Eng.  glitter,  <  glitzen  <  gli^en ;  flimmern  <  fltmmeit; 
glimmern  +  Eng.  glimmer <9limmeu;  jlottern<  L.  G.  stolern <  stoten,  -f  H.  Cf 


254  WOEDFORMATION — VERBS.  [538- 

llo§en,  +  Eng.  stutter ;  jogern  <  zogen  <  jie^en  ;  ficEern  +  Ags.  sicerian.  to 
trickle. 

a.  Nouns  both  sg.  and  pi. ,  adjectives  and  their  comparatives  in  -er  have 
started  many  of  these  verbs,  e.  g.,  faubern,  ermeitern,  bldtterU/  rabcrn,  argern< 
arg;  forbern,  to  promote,  forberitf  to  demand. 

538.  -ieren,  -irett,  of  Romance  origin,  always  accented, 
at  first  only  in  borrowed  words,  and  then  added  to  German 
noun-stems,     -eien,  of  similar  origin,  is  rare. 

Ex. :  Foreign  words  :  fallieren  +  fail,  regtcrcn  +  reign,  fhibteren  +  study, 
lf)antieren,  trade  (rather  from  French  hanter  than  from  $anb,  see  Kluge). 
^onterfeten,  to  paint  +  counterfeit;  geknebetet,  blessed.  German  stems  : 
l^aufteren,  peddle ;  floljier en,  strut;  ^dbieren.    In  Goethe's  Faust:  irrUc()teUeren. 

a.  These  were  formed  as  early  as  M.  H.  G.  in  no  small  numbers,  but  were  most 
numerous  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century.  Now 
they  are  excluded,  except  the  oldest  of  them,  from  elevated  style.  These  verbs  are 
very  numerous  in  the  journals. 

539.  1.  -f  e  tt,  -e  f  e  n, +Eng.  s,  <  O.  H.  G.  -ison.  Rare  both 
in  English  and  German. 

Ex.:  grinfen,  +  grin,  <  greinen,,  M.  H.  G.  grinen;  graufen  <  O.  H.  G. 
gruwison  <  stem  grU,  G.  graufant,  ©rciuel,  +  gruesome,  grajjfen  +  Eng. 
grasp. 

a.  -fen  is  hidden  in  geijcn  <  gitsen  <  gitison  <  subst.  git.  Compare 
Eng.  cleanse  <  clean,  -fen  stands  for  -jen  in  gacffen  <  gagzen,  mucffen  < 
M.  H.  G.  muchzen. 

2.  -f^cn.  This  is  of  double  origin:  1)  From  -fen,  see  490,  1,  b  : 
^errfc^en  <  Mrsen  <  htrison  <  ^err,  herro ;  feilfcfien  <  miUen  <  fell. 

2)  From  -sk,  L.  sc,  +  Eng.  sh,  forfc^en  <  forsken  ;  perhaps  in  tiafc^en 
<  *hafsk6n,  if  that  comes  from  a  stem  liaf-.  For  more  examples,  see 
457,  4. 

3.  -jcn  <  older  -zzen.  Has  sometimes  iterative  and  intensive 
force, 

Ex.:  bujen,  ifir^en,  erjen,  to  call  thou,  you,  he  ;  aci^jen  <  ad^>  to  groan;  led)" 
jen,  to  thirst,  <  lechen  +  leak  ;  feufjen  <  siufzen,  from  the  same  root  as 
fttufen ;  fii^luc^jen,  to  sob,  M.  H.  G.  aluckzen  <  fd)Iu(f en. 

a.  -enjen  in  faulcnjen  <  faul/  is  due  to  the  influence  of  L.  nouns  in  -entia. 


641]  WORDFORMATIOK — VERBS.  255 

4.  -t  g  e  n.  This  is  a  secondary  suffix,  starting  with  verbs  derived  from 
adjectives  in  -13  (see  525),  e.g.,  triirbigen  <  wiirbig,  notigen  <  nottg.  It  was 
felt  to  be  a  verbal  suffix,  hence :  cnbigen  <  Snbe,  freujigen  <  ^reuj,  reinijicn 
<  reiitf  ^ulbigen  <  |)ulb.    Quite  numerous. 

Verb  Formation  by  Means  of  Inseparable  Prefixes,  viz.: 

be-,  en  t-,  e  r-,  g  e-,  »  e  r-,  %-,  j  e  r-     Always  unaccented. 

540.  b  c-,  b-  before  I,  +  Eng.  be-.   See  33ei-  516,  4. 

1.  S3  e- has  lost  nearly  all  local  force  of  "by,"  "near,"  "around," 
which  is  felt  still  in  bet)dngen,  cover  by  hanging,  befdjneiben,  cut  on  all 
sides,  to  trim,  but  in  these  it  approaches  already  its  common  force,  which 
is  intensive :  bebauen,  bcfragen,  bege^ren,  berii()ren,  bebetfen,  berufen. 

2.  It  makes  intransitive  verbs  transitive  :  fatten— befallen  +  befall ;  reifen 
(in  cinem  Sanbe)  —  etn  Sanb  beretjen,  travel  all  over  a  country;  fa^ren  auf  etw., 
but  etwad  befabren.     This  is  its  most  frequent  use. 

3.  In  verbs  from  noun  stems  it  denotes  "  provide  with,"  "make": 
befc^u^en,  provide  with  shoes;  bcvolfern,  populate;  befreunben  +  befriend; 
betru6en,  make  sad  ;  bejldrfen,  confirm.  Notice  certain  participial,  adjec- 
tives which  have  no  corresponding  verb,  e.  g  ,  beleibt,  corpulent ;  betagt, 
"  full  in  years  ; "  belefen,  well  read ;  or  they  are  isolated  from  the  verb,  e.g., 
befc^etben,  modest ;  bej^attt,  holding  an  office  ;  befi^affen,  conditioned. 

4.  It  has  privative  force  still  in  bene^men,  to  take  away  ;  fi(^  begeben 
(with  G.),  to  give  up.  Compare  Eng.  behead  and  M.  H.  G.  behoubeien, 
for  which  now  ent^auptcn.  N.  H  G.  be^aupten  strangely  represents  M.  H  G. 
behaben  and  beheben,  for  which  once  behouben,  to  maintain,  assert. 

541.  e  n  t-,  e  m  p-  before  f,  <  O.  H.  G.  inf^.    See  ant-,  516, 3. 

Its  force  is  :  1.  "  Opposite,"  "  in  return  ;  "  in  empfeblen,  recommend  ; 
em^fangen,  receive  ;  entgelten,  pay  back,  restore ;  see  sub.  2. 

2.  Contrary,  "against,"  privative,  "away  from  :  "  entgelten,  suffer  for 
entfagen,  renounce ;  entbtnben*  deliver ;  entjle^en,  to  lack  (but  see  below) 
entbecfcnf  entlaufcn.  From  nominal  stems  :  entgleifen,  run  off  the  track 
cntt^ronen,  dethrone ;  entijolfern,  depopulate. 

3.  "  Transition  into,"  inchoative  "  springing  from,"  "  out  of  :  "  cntf^e^cn, 
spring  from,  arise  ;  entbrennen,  to  take  fire,  break  out ;  entf^lafen,  fall 
asleep.     A  quite  common  force. 


256  WORDFORMATION — VERBS.  [542- 

542.  e  r-  <  0.  H.  G.  ir,  ar  +  Eng.  a-  see  516,  9. 

Force:  1.  "Out from,"  "upward":  er^eben,  arise;  erlvetfen,  awaken; 
erforfd}en,  fiud  out ;  erfirtben,  to  invent. 

2.  Transition  into  another  state,  inchoative  like  cnt-  :  crfalten,  grow 
cold ;  erWu^en,  bloom ;  erbeben,  tremble.  Many  from  adjectives  :  erfranfen,  to 
fall  ill ;  erblinbcn*  to  become  blind.     ' 

3.  Completion  and  success  of  the  action  :  erjagen,  ertetteln»  to  obtain  by 
hunting,  by  begging;  very  frequent.     Compare  Eng.  arise,  abide. 

543.  g  e-,  g-  before  1,  see  516,  7,  +  Eng.  a- 

Force  :  1.  "  Together  "  only  in  few  verbs  like  :  j^efrieren,  congeal ;  gerin* 
ncn,  curdle ;  geftoren,  to  belong ;  geleiten/  accompany  ;-9efaIlen,  to  please. 

2.  Frequentative  and  intensive:  geloben,  gebenfen,  gebieten,  and  finally  no 
force  at  all  as  in  the  past  participle  and  in  verbs  like  :  gcbei^en»  geliipeln, 
genefen^  genie^en*  Numerous  past  part,  from  nominal  stems,  with  the  force 
of  "provided  with/'  see  540,  4:  geftiefclt,  in  boots;  gejtnnt,  disposed; 
gcftirnt,  +  starry. 

544.  nt  i  §-,  +  Eng.  mis-,  as  to  its  force,  see  516,  8;  as  to 
its  origin,  453,  1. 

Ex.:  mt^glucEcn,  to  fail ;  mi^pren,  to  misunderstand ;  mipgiinnen,  to  grudge. 

545.  iJ  e  r-,  f  r-,  <  ver^  far,  fir,  Go.  fra,  fr,  +  Eng.  for-. 

Very  frequent. 

Force  :  1.  *  Through,"  "  to  the  end,"  intensive,  "  too  much  : "  »erUercn, 
+  lose,  +  forlorn  ;  vergeben  +  forgive ;  vcralteitf  grow  antiquated ;  »ergraben» 
hide  by  burying ;  »erbcrgen,  hide ;  ijer^tnbern,  prevent ;  ticrfd)Iafen,  +  sleep 
too  long;  ijerfommen,  to  deteriorate;  ijerHu^en,  fade;  verjagcn,  despair;  ux' 
flitd}en,  curse  ;  serlaufen,  scatter ;  freffen,  to  eat  (used  of  animals). 

2.  The  opposite,  the  wrong,  a  mistake:  »erfaufen,  serMetcn,  verfu^rcn; 
serlegen  +  mislay,  but  also  (sub.  1)  to  publish  (a  book)  ;  tterkuen,  build 
wrongly  ;  jic^  Dcrlaufen,  lose  the  way  ;  fid)  »erl)oren,  to  mishear  ;  ftcb  sergret^ 
fen,  to  get  hold  of  the  wrong  thing ;  (fid))  ijergeben,  to  misdeal  (in  cards). 

3.  Waste  and  consumption  of  the  object :  \jerbauen>  use  up  in  building 
(see  sub.  4) ;  i^erfaufen,  waste  in  drinking  ;  \.>crfptelen/  lose,  gamble  away. 

4.  From  nominal  stems  :  "  change  into,"  "  give  the  appearance  of," 
"bring  about  a  certain  state  of,"  e.g.,  ijerglafcn,  glaze,  turn  into  glass  ; 
ijcrgolbenr  +  gild ;  »erfnod)ern,  ossify  ;  »crjw(fcrn»  cover  with  sugar,  turn  into 


547]  WORDFORMATIOlf — VERBS.  257 

sugar ;    »erarmen,  grow  poor  ;    uerf^ted^tern,  make  or  grow  worse ;    verbauen 
(sub.  3),  cover  by  building  in  front  of. 

a.  »cr-  in  past  participles :  ttcrwanbt,  related,  but  of  the  regular  verb  = 
"  applied  ; "  »erfc^amt,  bashful. 

546.  3  e  r-  <  M.  H.  G.  zer-,  ze-,  O.  H.  G.  zur,  zar,  zir,  + 
Go.  tus-,  +  Gr.  dvg-  +  O.  Eng.  to-brecan,  jerbred^en.  Least 
frequent  of  these  suffixes.  • 

Its  force  is :  "  separation,"  "  scattering,"  "  dissolution,"  "  to  pieces  "  : 
jer^auen,  cut  to  pieces ;  jergltebernf  dismember ;  jertriintmern,  dash  to  pieces. 

1.  If  be-  and  tter-  precede  other  prefixes,  separable  or  inseparable,  the 
verb  is  always  an  inseparable  compound.  Ex. :  veru'ngliirf en,  beei'ntrad)ti9en, 
knad^rid^ttgen.  These  come  from  the  compound  nouns  llngliirf,  ©intrad)t, 
9?ad^ric^t.  See  547.  Notice  the  difference  between  k»o'rmunben<  33ormunb 
(insep.)  and  be»o'rjle^en<k»or  +  j!e^en  (sep.). 

2.  Notice  such  compounds  as  au'ferfle^eu,  a'nerjie^en,  »orau'^»er!iinbigen,  in 
which  the  second  prefix  is  inseparable.  The  first  and  second  have  no 
simple  tenses  in  main  clauses.  Their  past  part,  are  auferfianben,  anerjo(?en. 
The  pret.  of  the  third  is  funbigte  ijorau^,  but  the  past  part,  is  'ooxau^'otx^ 
fiinbigt,  without  ije-.     See  550. 

Compound  Verbs. 

547.  The  first  element  is  either  substantive  or  adjective  or 
adverb  or  preposition;  the  second  is  always  a  verb.  The  im- 
portant questions  are  accent  and  whether  the  compounds  are 
separable  or  inseparable,  or  both;  whether  direct  or  indirect. 

1.  Indirectly  compounded  are  the  verbs  derived  from  compound  sub- 
stantives and  adjectives.  They  are  inseparable  and  have  noun-accent- 
uation, i.  e.,  accent  on  the  first  element. 

Ex. :  tje'rbergen  <  ^t'xhtxg,^,  inn  ;  ra'tfd^lagen  <  OJat'fc^Iag,  council ;  tua'ff^ 
fa{)rten  <  2Batlfa^rt,  pilgrimage ;  frii^flutfen  <  grut)tlit(f ;  argwb^nen  <  5lrg^ 
tt»o^n,  suspicion  ;  bewillfommen  <  SBitlfommen. 

2.  That  these  are  not  genuine  compound  verbs  their  inflection  shows. 
The  seemingly  strong  verbs,  as  in  ra'tfc^lagen,  |)eiraten,  etc.,  are  not  in- 
flected strong,  but  weak  :  ratfd)lagte,  geratfd)Ia9t ;  '^etralete,  ge^eiratet.  Note 
also  :  ^attb&abte,  gefeanbfiabt,  not-  ^anb^atte,  ^'nb|abt  or  ^cinb9ct)abt. 

3.  Under  this  head  come  also:  1.  Verbs  of  which  the  compound  sub- 
stantive or  adjective  is  no  longer  common,  e.  g.,  n)etterleud)ten  <  weterlcich  ; 
xi^\.\ix'(\<^i\\<reclitverteg  ;  I)ra'nb(c^a^en<  S3ranbfd)a§.    2.  A  few  verbs  which 


258  WORDFORMATION" — VERBS.  [548- 

seem  due  to  analogy  with  the  above  and  formed  by  mere  juxtaposition 
of  adjective  or  substantive  and  verb,  e.  g.,  lie'bfofen,  tt^iUfa^ren  (accent 
doubtful),  fro^Io'rfen,  lie'bdugeln,  ttci'^fagen  (as  if  it  were  from  weife  and  fagen, 
but  it  comes  from  the  noun  wi^^ago,  prophet).  Principal  parts  :  liebfofen, 
liebfoile,  gcliebfoil;  fro^locfen,  gefro^lorft. 

548.  All  the  other  compound  verbs  are  directly  compounded,  separa- 
ble and  accented  on  tlie  first  part  excepting  certain  propositions,  see  549, 
which  form  the  only  genuine  old  compounds  with  accent  on  the  stem- 
syllable  of  the  verb.  These  and  the  verbs  in  540-546  are  the  compound 
verbs  proper  with  the  original  verb-accent. 

1.  Substantive  -t-  Verb, 

The  substantive  is  the  object  of  the  verb. 

Ex.:  fla'ttftnben,  ^au'^^altcn,  teilne^men,  banffagen,  ^jret^gcBen. 

Note.— But  for  the  fact  that  in  certain  tenses  they  are  written  together  and  the 
substantive  is  now  according  to  the  "  Rules  "  to  be  written  without  capital,  these 
verbs  are  no  more  compounds  than  the  corresponding  Eng.  to  keep  house,  take  place, 
give  thanks.  As  late  as  early  N.  H.  G.  these  and  the  following  groups  were  not  treated 
as  compounds. 

2.  Adjective  +  Verb. 

The  adjective  is  generally  factitive  predicate,  e.  g.,  roabrne^men,  **  take 
notice  of";  totfd^lagen,  strike  dead;  freifprei^en,  declare  not  guilty;  ijoH= 
gicjsen,  -fd^utten,  see  549,  5. 

a.  A  large  number  of  compounds  with  substantives  and  adjectives  oc- 
cur only  in  certain  forms,  viz.,  in  the  two  participles  and  in  the  infinitive 
used  as  a  noun,  e.  g. ,  blut)littenb,  pflicltsergeffen,  jliUbeglucft,  ba«  ©c^onfci^reibcn, 
ba^  8tittfd)n?etgen. 

3.  Adverb  or  Preposition  +  Verb. 

The  adverb  qualifies  the  verb  expressing  manner,  direction,  time. 
The  preposition  in  this  case  has  the  force  of  an  adverb.  Exceptions 
below. 

Ex.:  l^i'nfc^icfcn,  ^c'r^olen,  na'c^mac^en,  loorau'^fe^en,  iufa'mmenfommcn,  wo'bl* 

549.  Separable  and  inseparable  compound  verbs  occur  with 
turd),  (Winter),  iibcr,  urn,  untcr,  »oU,  witer,  wieter. 

a.  Inseparable  verbs  compounded  with  these  prepositions  are  transi- 
tive, and  have  the  old  accentuation  of  verb-compounds  (see  421).  Here 
belong  also  all  verbs  with  Winter-*  rcibcr-  and  a  few  with  »oU-,  e.  g.,  »oIl* 
bri'ngcn.     These  verbs  are  nearly  all  old,  but  some  new  ones  have  been 


549]  wordfOrmation: — ^verbs.  259 

formed  after  them.  The  force  of  the  preposition  has  entered  into  and 
modified  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  so  that  if  the  simple  or  separable 
compound  verb  was  intransitive  the  inseparable  compound  became  tran- 
sitive ;  if  transitive,  the  compound  developed  a  different  meaning,  gen- 
erally figurative,  often  intensive.     As  to  ^abcn  and  fein  see  265. 

The  separable  compounds  have  not  the  verb-accentuation  and  the 
force  of  the  preposition  remains  literal  and  intact. 

Very  few  verbs  allow  of  both  compositions. 

1.  b  u  r  c^  means  +  "through,"  "  thoroughly,"  completion  of  the  action, 
"  filling  with,"  "to  the  end  of  a  fixed  limit  of  time,"  t)u'rd)bringen,  crowd 
through, penetrate,  carry  to  a  successful  issue,  e.g.,hk  ^ugcl  ift  buri^gebrungen, 
the  ball  went  through.  Trans.:  2)ie  ^ugel  ^at  ba^  S3rett  burc^bru'ngen,  the  ball 
penetrated  the  board  ;  „»on  bem  ®efu^le  feineiS  S'^ii^t^  burctjbru'ngen."  In  „X)ic 
^.  [\i  hmd)  ba(3  S3rett  gebrungen"  there  is  no  compound.  2)u'rc^[d)auen,  look 
through,  etwaiJ  burc^fc^au'eU/  see  through,  understand  thoroughly ;  burc^* 
ta'njen/  to  spend  in  dancing,  bu'rd)tan;en,  to  dance  through,  to  pass  through 
dancing;  bu'r(^fe^en»  to  look  through  (a  hole),  hurriedly  through  a  book  ; 
the  inseparable  burc^fe'^en  is  obsolete,  it  would  have  the  force  of  burd)*= 
fc^au'en,  to  understand  thoroughly. 

2.  ^inttx,  +  behind.  Separable  compounds  with  Winter  do  not  really 
occur  in  good  style.  In  ^Kntergie^cn,  -bringen  it  stands  for  ^inunter  =  pour 
down,  swallow.  The  inseparable  compounds  are  always  figurative  and 
transitive,  its  force  is  the  opposite  of  straight,  "  deceptive  " :  !()interge'^n, 
deceive  ;  ^intertreiben,  to  prevent,  circumvent ;  ^i'nterge^en  would  mean  the 
more  usual  ^inter|)e'r  or  feintena'nge^en,  to  walk  behind. 

3.  uB  er  =  «)  separable  :  over,  beyond,  across  =  ^inubcr;  b)  in  close 
compounds  :  transfer,  covering,  a  missing,  figurative  sense,  extent  of  a 
certain  limit  of  time. 

a.  ii'krfe^en,  cross,  take  across  (a  river) ;  u'berge^en,  go  over. 

b.  iiberjie'^en^  cover  with ;  uberna'c^teti/  spend  the  night ;  iiberfc^rei'ben,  head 
a  column  or  chapter ;  iikr^o'ren,  not  to  hear ;  iiberle'gen,  consider ;  ii'berfd^b'* 
gen  =  u'mfdjlagen,  tip,  turn  over  ;  but  uberfc^la'gen,  calculate  (expenses) ; 
iiberfe'^en,  to  translate ;  uberge'{)cn,  pass  over,  skip  ;  uberfe'f)en,  overlook. 

4.  unt.  a.  separable  =  around,  about,  again  or  over,  upside  down, 
change  of  place,  loss  of  something,  failure. 

Ex.:  u'm^oinvjen  (eincn  SJ^antel),  put  on,  (ein  23i(b)  change  the  place  of  a  pict- 
ure ;  u'mlaufen,  overthrow  by  running ;  u'mfleiben,  change  clothing ;  u'm^ 
fc^ren,  turn  back  ;  u'mfommcn  (viz.,  urtC^  Ceben),  perish,  u'mbringenr  take  the 
life  of  ;  jtc^  u'ntgel^en,  take  a  roundabout  course. 


260  WORDFORMATiOX — VERBS.  [550- 

6.  inseparable :  literally  denotes  the  encircl/ng  of  an  object,  figura- 
tively it  has  the  force  of  1^  i  n  t  er,  deception :  unta^rmen,  embrace  ;  untfd)i'f* 
fen,  sail  around,  double ;  umflei'bcn,  cover,  drape  ;  umge'^cn,  avoid,  deceive. 

5.  unter,  separable:  under,  down,  among  (with):  u'nter^alten,  hold 
under,  down;  u'nterbrtngen,  provide  for  (figurative) ;  u'nterge^cn,  go  down,  set. 

Inseparable,  figurative  sense:  unter^a'lten,  entertain;  untcrfa'gen  (Dat.), 
forbid ;  jic^  untertle'^en,  make  bold ;  unterne'^men/  undertake ;  unterla'ffen/ 
leave  undone ;  unterlie'gcn,  to  be  overcome  by. 

6.  \)  0  n ,  separable  :  +  full,  always  literally  with  verbs  denoting  pour- 
ing, filling  and  similar  ones:  so'flbrtngcn,  Do'Ugtc^en,  »o'flfc^iitten (ein ®cfa§), 
bring,  pour  a  vessel  full.  Inseparable  :  "to  the  end,"  accomplishment : 
»oUfu'^ren,  »oII6ri'ngen,  execute;  »otte'nbcn,  finish,  compare  Eng.  f ulfi'l ; 
»oIIfo'mnien  (part.),  perfect. 

7.  toib  e  r  in  the  sense  of  **  against"  is  always  inseparable  and  unac- 
cented, generally  figurative  sense  :  TOiberlc'gen,  refute ;  tt)tber)1rc'ben  (with 
Dative),  resist ;  iDiberfpre'd^en,  contradict  (also  Dat.) ;  tDibcrjle'^eit/  to  resist. 

8.  njiebcr,  separable:  "again,"  "back":  wic'bcr^olen,  fetch  back; 
tDic'bcrgcben,  give  back ;  mie'berfagen,  say  again.  Very  loose  compounds. 
Inseparable  :  figurative  sense  only  in  iDieber^o'lcn,  repeat ;  n?ibcr^a'Qen, 
n)ibcrfcf)ei'nen  also  tpie'berfd^einen,  at'ebcr^aUen;  usage  is  unsettled  in  these. 

0.  The  difference  in  the  spelling  ittiber — wiefcer  is  quite  modern. 

550.  Separable  and  inseparable  composition  with  these  adverbs  is  quite  old,  but  in 
O.  H.  G.  probably  no  distinction  was  made  in  force  or  meaning.  Even  now  ,,Xk 
^uget  ^at  ia^  iBrett  bur^bru'ngen"  and  „bie  ^.  tfi  burc^  baS  58rctt  gefcruugcn"  amount  to 
quite  the  same  thing.  In  fact  sepamble  composition  is  no  real  composition.  Many 
still  write  the  prefixes  separately  before  the  verb  where  any  other  adverb  would  stand. 
In  M.  H.  G.  the  great  majority  of  our  modern  separable  compounds  are  not  felt  at  all 
as  compounds.    Two  things  have  brought  about  this  feeling  that  they  are  such : 

1.  The  substantives  compounded  with  the  same  element  as  the  verb,  e.  g.,  U'mgang, 
Tu'rcftfal^rt,  sn'bbrtti),  have  lead  us  to  associate  urn  and  gc^en,  burc^  and  fa^rcn,  ai  and 
fcrec^cn. 

2.  When  a  meaning  different  from  the  literal  or  common  one  was  developed,  verb 
and  adverb  were  felt  as  belonging  together,  e.  g.,  etreaS  bu'rd^^e^en,  to  carry  something 
through,  to  the  end  ;  »orf(^lagen,  to  propose ;  nac^^c^tagen,  to  look  up  a  reference,  etc. 

a.  Very  often  there  is  no  difference  in  meaning,  but  only  in  construction,  between 
the  simple  verb  +  preposition  and  the  close  compound,  e.  g.,  1,  1)a^  '^ferb  ifl  ut>er  ben 
Wraten  gcfprungcn,  =  "The  horse  has  jumped  over  the  ditch,"  and,  2.  ba§  ^fcrb  fiat  ben 
©raben  Oberiprungen,  The  horse  has  jumped  the  ditch.  In  2,  perhaps  the  act  of  the 
feap  is  emphasized,  it  did  not  sivim  across;  in  1,  the  extent  of  the  leap.    But  compare 


552]  WORDFORMATIOIS^ — ADVERBS.  261 

also  the  other,  not  literal  meaning  of  ufierfprKngen,  viz.,  to  skip,  omit,  in  :  CDer  5Rctfenbe 
1)at  einen  ^often  uber^prungen,  the  traveller  has  skipped  one  item.  ®er  iH.  i[t  iiber  ben 
^pojlen  gefprungen  would  be  meaningless. 

Derivation  of  Adverbs. 

The  adverbs  are  derived  from  pronominal  stems  and  from 
noun-stems. 

551.  The  two  suffixes  en  and  er,  <  older  an(a),  ar{a), 
are  attached  to  the  stems. 

Adverbs  feom  Pronominal  Stems. 

1.  From  the  stem  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun: 

a.  From  tlie  stem  ta-tha  :  bar,  ba  +  there,  bann  +  then  and  bcnn,  conj. 
"  for,"  tliis  double  form  is  M.  H.  G,,  but  the  difference  in  meaning  was 
only  established  as  late  as  the  18th  century,  <  older  danne,  denne,  which 
have  not  been  explained  yet.  !I)anncn  <  dannana  stands  only  in  wVott 
banncn",  hence.     2)efio,  see  442,  a ;  bort  <  dar6t ;  boc^  +  though  (?). 

&.  From  the  stem  hi :  l^er  +  hither  ;  ^in,  away  ;  "^ier  +  here  ;  ^innen, 
in  »on  l;innen,  hence,     .^tnten,  ^eute,  ^cint,  l)euer,  see  443,  2. 

2.  From  the  stem  of  the  interrogative  pronoun: 

toann  +  when,  wenn,  if ;  n>or-,  tt)0  +  where  <  wd,  war ;  »on  wannen  + 
whence  is  rare.  For  wie  +  how  -f  why,  see  444,  1.  2Baru'm  <wdr  + 
umbe  or  wara  +  umbe  (?). 

3.  From  the  stem  swa- :  fo  +  so  ;  famt»  pfamnten  (?),  fonber,  aU,  atfo,  fonj! 
<  sunst,  sust,  sua.  From  various  stems  :  obcn^  +  above  ;  unten,  unter,  + 
under;  nib  (rare),  nieben  +  beneath  ;  nun  +  jjow ;  au^en,  au§er;  inncn,  inner. 

552.  Adverbs  from  Noun-stems. 

These  adverbs  are  always  cases  of  nouns,  the  Genitive 
being  the  most  frequent.     See  187. 

1.  Genitive :  abenb^,  morgcn^,  na^t^,  tdU,  flugi?,  berttjeil,  bermapen,  nt<^t^. 
^  was  looked  upon  as  an  adverbial  ending  and  added  to  fem.  nouns  and 
even  to  other  cases  and  whole  adverbial  phrases,  e.g.,  -feiti^  in  many 
compounds:  bie'(Jfeit^,  mei'nerfett^,  aflerbi'nt^^  (really  a  G. pL),  'oo'xma.U,  unter^ 
tre'g(3,  e'^emali^r  allerttje'gen.  Compare  Eng.  needs,  now-a-days,  always, 
sometimes. 

2.  Dative:  juwei'len,  mitten,  ^alben,  traun(?),  morgen  (sg.?),  ab^a'nben,  »or^ 


262  WORDFORMATIOK — ADVERBS.  [553- 

l^a'nben,  jufolge,  anjlatt.    Compare  Eng.  to-morrow,  o'clock,  a  year  <  on 
(in)  the  year,  a  day  <  on  (in)  the  day,  because,  asleep,  whilom. 

3.  Accusative :  m^  (?)  +  away ;  ^eim  +  home ;  mal,  once ;  bienjeil,  + 
while ;  uber^aupt,  je,  nie. 

-Wetfe  following  at  first  only  after  a  Gen.,  later  the  uninflected  noun  : 
i^wangigmeife,  by  force,  aui3na:^m^tt»eife,  exceptionally,  jlucfweife,  piecemeal. 
Compare  Eng.  nowise,  otherwise,  the  while. 

4.  Instrumental:  ^tmx,  this  year<  Mujaru ;  l^eute,  to -d&y  <  hmtagu  ; 
^etnt  <  Mnaht  (a  Dat.?).     See  443,  2. 

553.  Derivation  by  suffix :  -It n g ^  and  -n? a r t ^, 

1.  -Iing(5  comes  from  the  G.  of  nouns  in  -Iin(^  and  is  a  late  formation  : 
rudflingfJf  backward  ;  blinbling*?,  blindly.    Compare  Eng.  sideling,  headlong. 

\  2.  -tt)ort^  + ward  is  really  the  G.  of  an  adjective  wert,  wart.  It  is  very 
common  after  prepositions  :  l^einwart^,  homeward  ;  walbttjart^*  towards  the 
forest ;  at»n)art5,  downward,  aside ;  ijorwdrt^  +  forward. 

Adverbs  from  Adjectives. 

554.  Almost  all  adjectives  can  be  used  as  adverbs. 

Adverbs  with  a  sufBx  : 

1.  -e,  this  is  now  rare  but  once  very  frequent  <  older  -o,  which  was 
probably  the  A.  sg.  fem.:  gern(e),  fern(e),  balbe  in  Goethe's  wSBarte  nur,  balbe 
9iu^eft  bu  aui^.« 

a.  Remark  here  the  doublets  faji  ~  fej^,  fc^on  —  fc^on^  fruf)  (rare), —  fru^, 
fpat  (rare),  —  fpat.  Those  without  umlaut  are  the  regularly  formed  ad- 
verbs from  jo  stems.  Those  with  umlaut  are  adjectives  used  as  adverbs. 
In  tragc,  b6fe»  etc.,  e  does  not  go  back  to  -o,  but  0.  H.  G.  i<  jo,  since  they 
are  adjectives  (Jo-stems)  used  as  adverbs  and  not  transformed  into  adverbs. 

2.  -I  i  c^  +  -ly,  is  really  no  adverbial  suffix,  but  the  adjective  suffix  to 
which  the  adverbial  c  ( <  o)  was  added,  -liche,  -liho  :  trcuUd)  —  trcu  +  truly, 
faithfully  ;  wa^rlic^  —  wa^r,  gutUdC)  —  gut»  freilld),  to  be  sure,  —  frei ;  bitterlic^ 
—  adjective  titter. 

a.  The  corresponding  adjective  in  -U(^  is  perhaps  no  longer  in  use. 
Compare  freilic!^,  to  be  sure  —  frci  +  free. 

h.  -lic^  has  also  been  added  to  other  stems:  einfc^lie^lici^,  l^offentlid^/  xo\\* 
fentUc^. 


556j  WORDFORMATIOK — PREPOSITIONS.  263 

555.  Adverbs,  cases  of  adjectives. 

Genitive:  1.  xtd)t^,  Unf^,  eUenbsS,  t>ergekn^»  jlet^  +  steadily. 

3.  -e  n  (g  from  superlatives  and  ordinals :  erfien<3,  pc^flen^,  nteiflen^*  brit^ 
ten^.     -en<3  contains  the  inflection  -en  of  the  adjective. 

a.  Genitive  with  excrescent  t.  Such  are  felt  as  superlatives :  iungft, 
langjl»  nebjl;  einfi  (?),  but  in  O.H.G.  are  doublets  einest  and  elnes.  Compare 
Eng.  once<  dnes  and  dial,  "onst"  ;  also  amidst,  amongst,  dial,  "acrost." 
Pure  Gem  in  Eng.  else  <  elles,  unawares,  etc. 

Bern.  The  above  explanation  is  rejected  by  Lexer  in  GrimrrCs  Diet. 

3.  Dative.  It  is  hidden  in  jmar  <  zewdre,  Wt.  "for  true,"  to  be  sure, 
©injein,  singly  <  einzel  by  suffix  -il  from  ein(az)  <  ein;  adj.  einje(n-er. 
In  adverbial  phrases  :  am  leic^teften*  am  fc^onften.  In  M.  H.  G.  this  Dative 
was  very  frequent,  e.g.,  in  -lichen,  -lingen,  etc. 

4.  Accusative,  also  in  the  comparative  and  superlative  decrees  :  xomxa,, 
»iel,  genug,  me^r,  met)!,  I)effcr,  Itod^il,  moglic^ft.  In  adverbial  phrases :  insSbe* 
fonbere,  fiirroa^r,  auf  <5  reinfle,  fc^onile.    See  300,  2. 

a.  Note  also  those  preceded  by  prepositions  :  julc^t,  +at  last,  neben(< 
enehen),  pgleic^,  at  the  same  time,  fitrba'§  or  fu'rba§,  farther. 

Prepositions  and  Conjunctions  have  tlie  same  origin  as  the 
adverbs,  being  originally  adverbs. 

Three  classes  of  words  may  be  comprised  under  the  head 
of  Particles. 

Prepositions. 

556.  1.  As  old  and  simple  prepositions  may  be  regarded :  (At  dXi,  auff 
au^,  Bet,  i)or  and  fiir  (doublets),  burc^,  gegen  (+  again),  in,  mit,  ob,  ju,  urn  (< 
umle). 

2.  Derived  by  suffixes  :  -er,  -ber,  -itx,  mostly  from  pronominal  stems 
and  from  the  older  forms  ar,  dar,  tar,  which  are  probably  all  three  com- 
parative suffixes  :  vJotx,  unter,  ^tnter,  wieber,  au§cr.     See  551,  3. 

3.  A  number  of  nouns  and  adjectives  in  the  various  cases  :  traft,  un^ 
m\\,  wdfirenb,  mitteB  (mittelil),  ftalt,  langig,  tro|,  ^albcn,  tuegen,  tPiUcit/  nad^jl, 
nebjl,  taut,  na(^,  jwtfc&en. 

a.  The  number  of  prepositions  governing  the  Gen.  is  really  difficult  to  state,  be- 
cause, like  many  of  the  above  and  many  others,  they  are  really  nouns  with  a  G. 
dependent  upon  them,  viz.,  jrceds,  berjufs,  betrep,  fciten^,  etc. 


264  WORDFOEMATION — INTERJECTIOKS.  [557- 

557.  Compound  Prepositions  are  generally  adverbs,  but  th^ 
following  may  be  classed  here  : 

1.  Preposition  (or  adverb)  +  preposition  or  adverb  :  Innnen<  bi  +  innen, 
hi^  <  bi  +  a^  (a^  +  Eng.  at),  neben  <en  +  eben.  jujuiber ;  cntge'gen  <en+ gegen 
(t  excrescent,)  etc, 

2.  Noun  +  noun,  or  prep.  +  noun,  or  pronoun  +  noun  :  jiifolgef  several  in 
-^Alb  and  -feit :  au§er^alt>,  jenfeit;  anjlatt. 

Conjunctions. 

658.  1.  From  pronominal  stems:  For  ba,  benn,  fo,  mm,  tt)tc,  and 
others,  see  among  adverbs,  551.  STber,  auc^,  unb,  ober/  fonbcrn/  toeber,  show 
suflaxes. 

2.  From  nouns  and  adjectives  :  \<xM,  glcic^,  ungeac^tet,  totxl,  iroi^renb,  and 
others. 

3.  Compounds :  adverb  and  preposition :  beijor,  fobalb,  mitbin,  fomit, 
ba'ber,  barum,  and  others. 

4.  Preposition  or  adverb  +  pronoun  or  adjective  :  tnbem,  feitbem,  foba§, 
al^  bap,  aKeitt,  entweber  <  ein-  dcr-  weder,  one  of  two ;  nic^i^bejlowemger, 
nevertheless. 

Interjections. 
559.     Interjections  proper. 

1.  Joy  is  expressed  by:  a|,  o,  '^et,  iud)l^c,  ^t\\(i,  ^urrab.  Surprise:  ei,  pe^, 
%<x.  Pain  by :  o^f  we^e,  au,  a*,  :^u.  Disgust :  x>])x\,  ft,  \>ah.  Doubt ;  )^xix, 
bent,  |uin.  Commands  to  be  silent  are  :  pil,  bfl,  fcb  ;  to  stop  or  pay  at- 
tention ;  brrr  (to  horses),  ^eba,  ^e,  :^o,  ^otta,  balloib. 

2.  Imitations  of  sounds  in  nature ;  '^\\xm'^^  (fall),  ))iff,  i?off,  vntf  (shot), 
but  (whizz),  bau^  (Ml),  mub  (cow),  ntiau  (cat),  wau  (dog),  l^opfa  (stumble), 
bunt  —  bum  (drum). 

3.  Burdens  of  songs:  !r)ubelbumbei,  Suioballera,  fdjrum — fcbrunt  —  fd^rum. 

660.  Certain  regular  words  which  have  become  exclamations,  often 
oaths  in  much  changed  forms :  ^alt,  SBctter,  Conner  unb  S3Iit}cn,  9)o^taufcitb, 
^eil,  SBravo,  D  \i,  D  jentine,  ©apperntent,  8aferIot,  5Wein  ^immet,  !£)cnnerwettcr 
xvo&i  einmaU 


LIST    OF    ABBREVIATIONS    AND    SYMBOLS    THAT 
EEQUIRE  EXPLANATIONS. 


Ags.  =  Anglo-Saxon. 

(B.)  =  Bible. 

(Bo.)  =  Bodenstedt. 

(Bii.)  =  Burger. 

(Ch.)  =  Cliamisso. 

D.  =  Dutch  or  Dative. 

(F.)  =  Hart's  Edition  of  Goethe's 

Faust,  Part  I. 
Fr.  =  French. 
(G.)  =  Goethe. 
Go.  =  Gothic. 
Gr.  =  Greek. 
G.  T.  =  General  Teutonic. 
(H.  and    D.)   =  Hart's  edition  of 

Goethe's  Hermann  and  Dorothea. 
(He.)  =  Herder. 
H.  G.  =  High  German. 
(Hu.)  =  A.  von  Humboldt. 
I.-E.  =  Indo-European. 
L.  =  Latin. 
(Le.)  =  Lessing. 


L.  G.  =  Low  German. 

(Lu.)  =  Luther's  works  excepting 
his  translation  of  the  Bible. 

M,  G.  =  Middle  German. 

M.  H.  G.  =  Middle  High  German. 

N.  G.  =  North  German  or  North 
Germany. 

N.  H.  G.  =  New  High  German. 

O.  Fr.  =  Old  French. 

0.  H.  G.  =  Old  High  German. 

(Prov.)  =  Proverb. 

(R.)  =  Riickert. 

Rules  =  the  official  rules  for  spell- 
ing, see  37. 

(Sch.)  ::=  Schiller. 

S.  G.  —  South  German. 

(Sli.)  =  Shakespere  translated  by 
Schlegel  and  Tieck. 

(Uh.)  =r  Uhland. 

V.  L.  =  Vulgar  Latin. 


<  means  **  derived  from,"  "  sprung  from,"  "  taken  from." 

>  means  "  passed  or  developed  into,"  '*  taken  into." 

+  between  a  German  and  fion-German  word  denotes  common  origin 
or  "cognates."  In  other  positions  it  means  "accompanied  or  followed 
by." 

*  before  a  word  means  that  that  form  of  the  word  does  not  actually 
occur,  but  is  conjectured  or  reconstructed. 

:  =  :,  or  :  as  :,  means  a  relation  as  in  a  mathematical  proportion. 

I,  II,  III  after  verbs  indicates  the  strong  verb-classes. 

—  between  letters  means  *'  interchanges  with,"  e.g.,  ^  —  d)  as  in  ^o^er  — 
^oc^  or  e  —  i  as  in  nc^men  —  nimmjl. 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


The  numbers  refer  to  the  paragraphs.    The  umlauts  have  a  separate  place,  h  after 
a,  0  after  o,  u  after  u. 


Ablaut :  nature  of,  393 ;  four  grades, 
394,463,2;  496;  497. 

Ablaut  series :  and  verb-classes,  123- 
139  ;  I.E.,  394,  1 ;  G.  T.,  >  O.  H.  G.  > 
N.  H.  G.,  395-400;  459-467  ;  group- 
ing of.  459. 

Abstract  nouns  :  article  before,  149  ;  no 
article,  145  ;  155,  2;  plural  of,  171  ; 
63,  Rem. 

Accent:  417,418;  degrees  of,  419; 
chief  on  stem-syllable,  430-  430,  2; 
478,  4;  Eng.  in  Norman-Fr.  words, 
430,  3  ;  in  compounds,  431-433  ;  sec- 
ondary, 434;  rhetorical,  436;  "free" 
in  I.-E.,  430,  2 ;  in  foreign  words,  437, 
430,  1;  434,  4;  493,2;  63,  2;  charac- 
teristic of  Germanic  Lang.,  478, 4;  =in- 
tonation,  393,  1. 

Accidence :  38-138  ;  Historical  Commen- 
tary on,  438-476. 

Accusative:  oflSce  of,  198;  after  verbs, 
198-306;  two  A.  after  verbs,  199; 
predicate  in  passive,  303,  2;  cognate, 
303  ;  logical  subject  in,  305  ;  after  re- 
flexive verbs,  306  ;  adverbial,  307 ;  dif- 
ference between  A.  and  G.  of  time,  308, 
1  ;  after  adjectives,  307, 1 ;  183  ;  abso- 
lute, 309  ;  397, 1 ;  by  attraction  in  the 
pred.  after  laifen,  303,  1;  after  prepos., 
3O4-306;  with  Inf.,  392. 

Adjective:  decl.  of,  69-73  ;  436  ;  origin 
of  strong  decl.,  437;  comparison  of, 
73-76,  see  comparison,  compar.  and 
superlat. ;  438,  439  ;  used  as  nouns, 
230,  331,  181 ;  gender  of  same,  160, 
3;  169;  163,  3;  G.  after,  183,  183  ; 
D.  after,  194  ;  A.  after,  183 ;  307,  1. 

Attributive  use  of.  311-317  ;  only 
used  attributively,  311  ;  uninflected 
used  attributively,  313  ;  in  the  predi- 
cate, 318,  330 ;  as  nouns  declined 
strong,  314  •  G.  sg.  m.  and  n.,  316,  1 ; 
declined  weak,  313;  317,  1 ;  as  nouns, 
331, 1;  origin  of  double  decl.,  315  ;  un- 
Bettled  usage  as  to  strong  and  weak 
decl.,  316,  331  ;  after  indef.  pron., 
314;  316,4;  181  ;  after  person,  pron., 
316,2;  two  or  more  adj.,  313,3;  317. 

In  the  predicate,  318,  319  ;  only  used  , 
in  pred.,  319 ;  position  of  adjuncts  of;  i 
353 ;    accent   lu   certain    compounds,  I 


433,    1-7 ;    derivation    of,    533-538 ; 
used  as  adverb,  554. 

Adjective  Clauses :  nature  of,  333  ;  336- 
338  ;  339. 

Adverbial  Clauses  :  nature  of,  333,  329  ; 
various  kinds  of,  330-340  ;  see  tempo- 
ral, local,  clauses  of  manner  and  cause 
(332-340),  final  (338).  conditional, 
(340),  etc. 

Adverbs:  origin  of,  551-555;  <  G.  of 
nouns,  187,  552 ;  +prepos.  supplanting 
the  person,  pron.,  234  ;  syntax  of,  299, 
300 ;  after  prepos.  +  noun,  300 ;  ad- 
verbs which  are  only  adverbs,  300, 1 ; 
554,  2 ;  adjective  as,  300,  2  :  554  ; 
comparison  by,  223,  224  ;  relative  and 
absolute  superl.  of.  300,  2 ;  nature  of, 
301, 1  ;  interrogative,  251,  5;  relative, 
258,  326,  331  ;  demonstrative,  327, 
3;  in  local  clauses,  331,  a-  position  in 
a  sentence,  354 ;  order  or  adverbs  of 
time,  place,  manner,  355 ;  accent  in 
compound,  423. 

Adversative  Sentences  :  coordinate,  320. 

Affricate  :  413,  5 ;  408, 1. 

Alemanic :  483,  1. 

Alphabet :  printed  and  script,  1,3;  ori- 
gin of  the  G.  letters,  360  ;  Latin  letters 
in  G.,  360,  2 ;  relation  to  6.  sounds, 
361. 

Anglo-Saxon,  see  English. 

Apposition:  <  G.  of  nouns,  181  ;  179, 
1:  317. 

Articles :  inflect,  of,  38 ;  accent  of,  39 
contraction  with  prepositions,  40 ;  spell 
ing  of,  39;  41  ;  syntax  of,  140-158 
nature  of  140  ;  general  cases  of  absence 
of.  141-146 ;  before  proper  nouns, 
147  ;  before  abstract  nouns,  149 ;  be- 
fore names  of  materials,  150;  before 
collective  nouns,  151 ;  repetition  of, 
158.    See  A.,  def.  and  indef. 

Article,  Def. :  infl.  of,  38 ;  attraction  to 
preceding  words  not  prepositions,  41  ; 
contraction  with  precedinjr  prepos.,  40  ; 
relation  to  Eng.  possessive  pron.,  154, 
343,3;  distributive  for  Eng.  "a,"  156. 

Article,  Indef. :  infl.  of,  38  ;  aphaeresis  of, 
41 ;  after  certain  pronouns,  144,  353; 
before  certain  pronouns,  157. 

Austrian:  483. 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


267 


Auxiliaries:  of  tense:  infl.  of,  110  ;  use 
of,  365,  366  ;  383,  2  ;  omis^iou  of, 
o46;  in  passive  voice,  373, 

Modal :  see  pret.  pres.  verbs  ;  special 
uses  of,  367;  verbs  of  motion  omitted 
after,  367,  Rem.  ;  imperative  force  of, 
387,  4;  +  perf.  and  pres.  inf.,  38S,  1 ; 
390;  in  future,  3  79,  3,  a.         . 


Bavarian-Austrian:  483,2;  488,  5,  a. 
Bible:  486;  487. 
Breckung :  405,  Bern. 


Capitals :  initial,  364 ;  in  pronouns  of 
address,  330-  in  article,  39, 

Cardinals,  see  Numerals. 

Cases :  see  individual  cases,  N.,  G.,  etc.  ; 
order  of  cases  in  the  sentence,  353. 

Causal  Sentences  :  coordinate,  331 ;  sub- 
ordinate, 337. 

Comparative  :  see  comparison  ;  use  of, 
333 ;  by  adverbs,  333,  334  ;  conjunc- 
tions after,  333. 

Comparative  Clauses  :  333,  1-3  ;  with 
nicl)t,  333,  2. 

Comparison:  of  adjectives,  73-76;  438; 
439;  irregular,  76,  1;  defective  and 
redundant,  76,  2;  the  suffixes,  73,  438  ; 
by  adverbs,  333,  334,  333,  1 ;  of  two 
qualities  of  the  same  object,  334. 

Compound  words  :  accent  of,  431-434  ; 
irregular  accent  of  certain  nouns,  adjec- 
tives, and  prefixes,  433  ;  secondary  ac- 
cent in,  434  ;  531 :  see  nouns,  adj., 
etc;  516;  compared  with  Eng.,  531, 
%b. 

Compound  tenses  :  109-115;  383, 

Concest'ive  Clauses :  339. 

Conditionals  :  formation  of,  115,  383,  5  : 
force  of,  380,  381,  384,  5. 

Conditional  Clauses  :  tenses  in,  380,  384, 
5 ;  nature  of,  340 ;  several  forms  of, 
340,  1 5  word-order  in,  343,  c. 

Conjugation :  strong  and  weak,  101-103 ; 
446,476  ;  weak,  117,  118,  447,  454, 
455  ;  strong,  130-133,  446,456-469. 

Conjunctions:  classification  of,  307  ;  ori- 
gin of,  301,  558. 

Coordinating:  copulative,  319;  adver- 
sative, 330 ;  concessive,  330,  2  ;  causal, 
331  ;  illative,  333. 

SuDordinating  :  in  temporal  clauses, 
330  ;  in  comparative  clauses,  333 ; 
334  ;  in  consecutive  clauses,  335  ;  in 
restrictive  clauses,  336;  causal,  337; 
final,  338  ;  concessive,  339  ;  condi- 
tional, 340. 

Consecutive  Clauses :  335. 

Consonant-declension,  see  n-declension. 

Consonant-stems :  become  i-stems,  54  ; 
438,2;  433,1;  433-435. 

Consonants:  description  of,  374-389; 
open,  374-381;  shut,  383-385;  na- 
sals, 386-388^;  compound,  389  ;  long, 
389,  5 ;  cous.-table,  p.  167 ;  see  Grimm's 


and  Verner's  Laws;  doubling  or  length- 
ening of;  389,  5;  413,  5;  488,  2,  c; 
535,  1,  R.  2. 

Coordinate  Sentences:  318;  various  kinds 
of,  319-333. 

Copulative  Sentences:  319. 


Danish:  479,  H. 

Dative  :  office  of,  189;  as  nearer  object 
after  in  trans,  and  certain  compound 
verbs,  190  ;  as  indirect  object  after 
trans,  verbs,  191;  ethical,  193  ;  after 
impers.  verbs,  193  ;  after  adj.,  194  ; 
190 ;  suppl  mted  by  prepos.  +  case, 
195;  after  prepos.,  303,  305,  306. 

Declension  :  of  articles,  38;  of  nouns,  43- 
68 ;  438-435  ;  of  foreign  nouns,  64, 
63,3;  of  proper  nouns,  65-68;  of  the  ad- 
jective, 69-73;  of  pronouns,  81-100. 

Demonstrative  Pronouns:  88-91  ;  use  of, 
344-350 :  origin  of,  443  ;  supplanted 
by  :^ter  and  ba  +  prepos.,  351,  2. 

Dependent  Clauses,  see  Subordinate. 

Dependent  order  of  words:  341,  344  ; 
in  main  clauses,  347,349;  the  oldest 
order,  349,  2. 

Dialect :  and  written  language,  390 ;  in 
M.  H.  G.,  485,  2  ;  in  N.  H.  G.,  486, 
487;  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  edu- 
cated, 390  ;  and  the  public  school,  393, 
5. 

Diphthongs:  pronunc,  of,  33  ;  analysis  of, 
373  ;  become  single  vowels,  488,  4  •  < 
long  vowels,  488,  5. 

Dutch  :  481,  3  ;  493,  3. 


East  Prankish  :  483,  3  ;  486. 

Elliptical  clauses  and  phrases :  310  ;  384, 

5,  Rem,;  387;  343,  c?,  2, 
English:    479,  III.  ;  493,  4  ;   umlaut  in, 

403,  2. 
Euphony:  418, 1. 
Exclamation :  G.  in,  188,  309,  3 ;  order 

of  words  in,  343,  e  ;  see  interjections. 


Final  clauses :  338. 

Flemish  :  481,  3. 

Foreign  nouns  :  decl.  of,  64  ;  gender  of, 
163;  verbs,  538. 

Foreign  words  :  spelling  of,  365  ;  ac- 
cent, 437,  430,  1 ;  434,  4;  in  G.  word- 
stock,  493-494. 

Fractions:   533,2. 

Frisian :  481, 1. 

Future :  formation  of,  114  ;  force  of, 
378;  imperative  force  of,  378,  3; 
387,  3 ;  present  with  future  force,  374, 
5  ;  condit.  for  subj,  of,  381 ;  origin  of, 
383,4;  379,  3. 


Gender  :  of  nouns  and  their  distribution 
among  the  declensions  according  to, 
43;  syntax  of,  159-169;  grammati- 
cal and  sex,  159,  160  ;  concord  of  the 


268 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


same,  165-168  ;  according  to  meaning, 
160;  according  to  ending?,  161;  doubt- 
ful and  double,  162 ;  cnange  of,  161, 
Bern.,  163;  of  compound  nouns,  164; 
concord  of,  165-168;  between  subject 
and  predicate,  313,  316. 

Genitive:  office  of,  180;  various  kinds  of 
G.,  180,  1-7 ;  partitive  G.  passed  into 
apposition,  181,  351;  supplanted  by 
prepos.,  181 ;  dependent  upon  adj., 
83,  183 ;  dependent  upon  verbs  as 
Hearer  object,  184;  as  remoter  object, 
185;  after  impersonal  verbs,  186;  ad- 
verbial G.  of  place,  time,  etc.,  187;  sup- 
planted by  A.,  207,  Rem.;  difference  be- 
tween A.  and  G.,  308;  after  prepos., 
303;  in  exclamations,  188. 

Grerman  Dialects  :  classification  of,  480- 
483;  484. 

German  Language :  see  Schriftsprache  ; 
history  of,  478-494  ;  relation  to  other 
Germanic  languages,  480-486. 

German  Sounds :  analysis  of,  366-389. 

Germanic  Languages :  relation  to  other 
I.-E.  languages,  477;  characteristics  of , 
478;  classification  of,  479-484. 

Gerundive:  107  ;  389,  Rem. ;  398  ;  453. 

Gothic:  letters,  360;  language,  479, 1. 

Grimm's  Law:  407-415;  G.  T.  shifting, 
407-410;  G.  shifting,  413-415;  mod- 
ifications of,  413  ;  in  dialects,  480  ;  in 
derivative  verbs,  535, 1,  R.  2. 

Hessian  :   483,  2. 

High  German  :  explanation  of  terms,  480, 

3,  a.    See  South  German. 
Hildebrantslied  :  485, 1. 

Icelandic:  479,11;  339.1;  530. 

Illative  Sentences  :  co-ordinate,  333. 

Imperative :  105,  450 ;  in  strong  verbs, 
131 ;  personal  pron.  in,  386,  1 ;  future 
with  imperative  force,  378,  3 ;  387,  3 ; 
force  of,  386  ;  other  verbal  forms  with 
the  force  of,  387  ;  conditional  and  con- 
cessive force  of,  339, 1 ;  word-order  in, 
343,  b. 

Indefinite  Pronouns :  94-100,445;  use 
of,  359-363. 

Indirect  Speech :  tenses  in,  383;  mood  in, 
385;  335,3;  338. 

Indo-European:  477. 

Infinitive:    106,  451;    nature  of,  388; 

390,  3,  b  ;  perfect,  388, 1  ;  imper.  force 
of,  387,  1 ;  without  and  with  ju,  389- 
391  ;  391,  3-5  ;  without  ui,  389,  Rem. ; 
after  certain  groups  of  verbs,  390  ;  with 
ju,  do.,  391,  1  ;   as  object  and  subject, 

391,  2,  3 ;  A.  with,  393 ;  as  a  noun, 
393  :  governed  by  prepos.  +  ^u,  391, 1 ; 
inf.  clause,  335,  2,  Rem.  3  ;  333, 1;  335, 
1 ;  position  of  two,  in  dependent  clause, 
345,  1 ;  position  of  adjuncts  of,  353. 

Instrumental :  194. 

Interiections:  559,  560 

Inteiiogative  Pronouns:  93,444;  use  of, 

351-353  ;    D.  supplanted  by  n5o(r)    + 

prepos.,  351, 2. 


Interrogative  Sentences :  309,2;  indirect, 
335,  2 ;  disjunctive,  335,  2,  c  \  word, 
order,  343,  a. 

Inverted  order  of  words.  341,  343;  in 
inserted  main  clause,  343, 1 ;  origin  of, 
in  conditional  and  in  hiain  clauses.  348, 
1;  after  certain  co-ordinating  conjunc- 
tions, 319  ;  in  a  claxise  in-stead  of  o6« 
glei(^,  etc.,  339. 

I-stems :  53-55  ;  439. 

Iteratives:  531,2. 


Jo-stems:  46.2;    438;    in  adj.,  437,  3: 
496,2;  533. 


Eanzleisprache :  486,  487. 


Labialization,  367, 1 ;  370,  4,  Rem. 
Language:  written.    See Schf-i/tsprache. 
LawofFmals:  4  78,3. 
Levelling :  nature  of,  491, 1 :  in  the  strong 

pret.,  460 ;    in  the  weak  verbs,  454, 

455. 
Low  Frankish :  481,  3. 
Low    German    Dialects:    480,   1;    481; 

>  H.  G.,  493,  3 ;  their  relation  to  the 

written  language,  393, 1-3 ;  391. 
Low  Saxon  :  481, 2. 
Luther:  486,487. 


Middle  Frankish :  483,1. 

Middle  German  Dialects:    480,2;    483; 

488,  3,  a  ;  488,  4. 
Middle  High  German  :  485,  2 ;  transition 

of  sounds  to  N.  H.  G.,  488-491. 
Mi-verbs:  136;  449,1,2;  473-476. 
Modal  Clauses :  333. 
Modal  Auxiliaries.    See  Auxiliaries. 
Mood :   see    subj.,  imper. ;    in  adjective 

clauses,  338. 
Multiplicatives :  531, 1. 


N-declension :  of  nouns,  47,  61,  63, 
433-435  ;  of  adjectives,  69,  313,  315. 

Narro\vness  of  vowels :  .367,  2. 

Negatives  :  309, 1 ;  double  negative,  309, 
1 ;  in  comparative  clauses,  333,  2. 

New  High  German  :  485,  486. 

Nominative:  178,179;  absolute,  397; 
predicate.  179;   A.  for,  in  pred.,  302,  1. 

Normal  order  of  words:  341,343;  in 
subordinate  clauses^  345,  2;  after  co- 
ordinating conjunctions,  343,  2  ;  when 
the  subordinate  clause  precedes,  343,  3; 
348,2;  343,  c;  358. 

North  German  :  see  Low  Q. 

Norwegian:  479,11. 

Nouns:  decl.  of,  43-68  ;  systems  of  noun 
decl.,  43  ;  distribution  of  nouns  among 
the  three  declensions  according  to  gen- 
der, 43,  433  ;  general  rules  for  noun- 
deci.,  43  ;  strong  decl.  of,  44-60,  428- 
431;  weak  decl.  of,  61,  63,  438,  2  j 


SUBJECT-INDEX. 


269 


433 ;  mixed  decl.  of,  63,  435, 1 ;  use 

of  cases,  see  individual  cases ;  deriva- 
tion of,  496-516;  composition,  517- 
531.  gender  of  compound,  164  ;  ac- 
cent of ,  4  3 1 ,  4  3  3 .  See  Number,  Proper 
N.,  Foreign  N.,  Abstract  N.,  Compound. 

Number  :  Singular  and  plural  of  nouns  : 
pi.  the  basis  of  classification  of  strong 
nouns,  44 ;  no  sign,  45,  a ;  umlaut, 
45,6;  -e,  49-55;  -er,  56-60,  431; 
(e)n,  61-63 ;  pi.  in  -%,  60 ;  irregular, 
51,  173,  173  ;  double  forms,  58,  163, 
4;  431,  2;  of  abstract  nouns,  171; 
nouns  only  in  pi.,  174. 

Sing,  or  pi.  after  nouns  of  quantity, 
etc.,  175;  why  sing.,  17 6-;  sing,  where 
Eng.  pi.,  177  ;  sing.  neut.  of  pronouns 
refer  to  masc,  fem.,  and  plural  nouns, 
168,  313. 

Sing,  and  pi.  of  verbs :  311 ;  pi.  after 
a  collective  noun,  313  ;  "  pi.  of  majes- 
ty," 311,  2. 

Numerals:  77;  infl.  of,  78;  when  in- 
flected, 336,  337;  cardinals,  77-79; 
pi.  in  -e.  337  ;  in  -er,  338,  2  ;  ordinals, 
80,  311,  530,  533  ;  infinitive,  100; 
derivation  of,  539-533, 


Old  High  German :  485. 

Ordinals :  see  Numerals. 

Orthography  :  division  into  syllables,  36; 
regiuated  by  government,  37,  361,  2; 
historical  notes  on,  360-365;  umlaut- 
signs,  363 ;  on  the  marks  to  show 
length,  363  •  on  use  of  capitals,  364  ;  of 
foreign  words,  365  ;  government  rules, 
37. 

O-stems :  lose  sign  of  the  pi.,  47,  51, 
438. 


Participial  Clauses  :  294, 4 ;  333, 1. 

Participles  :  103,  107,  453  ;  use  of,  394 
-397  ;  position  of  adjuncts  of,  353. 

Past  part,  without  ge-,  108,  113, 
453,  3;  470,  538;  isolated,  139, 
Rem.;  131,  Rem.;  534,4  ;  imper.  force 
of,  387,  2  ;  passive  force  of,  395  ;  act- 
ive force  of,  395,  2 ;  396 ;  dependent 
upon  fommenj  ^ei^en,  etc ,  396 ;  of 
verbs  of  motion,  396,'  absolute  con- 
struction, 397. 

Pres. part., 374,6;  383,3,4;  394,453; 
in  compound  tenses,  383,1,  2;  351. 

Passive  :   see  Voice. 

Perfect :  formation  of,  113 ;  force  of, 
376;  with  future  perf.  force,  379,  2; 
Eng.  perf.  —  G.  pres.,  374,4;  impera- 
tive, 386, 1 ;  infinitive,  388. 

Personal  Pronouns  :  81,  83,  440 ;  syn- 
tax of,  330-335  ;  gender  of,  81  ;  use 
of,  in  address,  330-333  ;  repetition  of, 
333,  2 ;  omission  of,  333,  1  ;  sup- 
planted by  other  pronouns  and  preposi- 
tions, 334  ;  in  the  imper.,  386,  1. 

Phonology  :  360-437  ;  orthography,  360 
-365 ;   analysis  of  sounds,  366-389 ; 


as  standard  of  pronunc,  390-393  ;  pho« 
netic  laws,  393-417  ;  accent,  418-437. 

Plattdeutsch  :  481,  2,  a  ;  484. 

Pluperfect:  formation  of,  113;  force  of , 
377  ;  relation  to  Condit.,  380,  381, 
384,  5. 

Plural :  see  Number. 

Popular  Etymology  :  494,  2,  3. 

Possessive  Pronouns  :  85-87  ;  syntax  of, 
339-343  ;  origin  of,  441 ;  compounds 

'with,  87*  used  substantively,  340; 
repetition  of,  341,  343,  2 ;  relation  to 
def.  article,  154,  343, 3  ;  supplanted  by 
demonstr.  pron.,  343,  1 ;  uninflected, 
339,  343, 1;  after  G.,  180,  4. 

Predicate,  308 ;  concord  of  subj.  and 
pred.,  311-317  ;  number  of  verb  after 
collective  noun,  313 ;  when  subjects  are 
connected  by  conjunctions,  311,  314  ; 
person  of  verb  when  subjects  are  of  dif- 
ferent persons,  315  ;  position  of,  350, 
351. 

Prepositions :  syntax  of,  301-306  ;  nat- 
ure of,  301,  1,  2 ;  556  ;  classification 
of,  according  to  cases,  and  treatment  of, 
in  alphabetical  order,  303-306 :  gov- 
erning the  G.,  303  ;  governing  the  D., 
303  ;  governing  the  A.,  304  ;  govern- 
ing D.  and  A.,  305 ;  general  position  of, 
357. 

Present;  infl.  of,  103:  of  weak  verbs, 
118.  447  ;  of  strong  verbs,  131,  456 ; 
O.  H.  G.,  446  ;  of  pret.  -pres.  verbs, 
134  ;  uses  of,  374  ;  periphrastic,  374, 
6;  imper.  force,  387,  3;  formation  oi 
present-stem,  457. 

Preterit ;  infl.  of,  103 ;  weak,  454 ; 
strong,  458  ;  levelling  in,  460  ;  double 
subj.,  13.5,  136.  464,3  ;  139  ;  of  pret.- 
pres.  verbs,  134,  470;  force  of,  375  ; 
relation  to  condit.,  380,  381,  384,  5 ; 
ind.  for  unreal  subj.,  340,  3. 

Pret.-pres.  verbs  :  134  ;  135  ;  108,  2  ; 
367;  470-473. 

Pronouns:  inflection  of,  81-100,  440- 
445,'  syntax  of,  330-363;  concord 
with  noun,  165-168,  335;  orjgin  of, 
496 ;  position  of,  in  the  sentence,  353, 
e ;  neut.  pron.  refers  to  masc.  or  fem. 
nouns,  168  ;  neut.  pron.  one  of  two 
accusatives.  199,  1,  2.  See  reciprocal, 
possessive,  etc.,  separately. 

Pronunciation:  of  letters.  1-37,  366  ; 
standard  of,  390-393  ;  disputed  points 
in  standard,  391 ;  Hanoverian  and  N. 
G.,  390,  4 ;    393,  1-3  ;    dialect  in,  390, 

Proper  Nouns:  decl  of,  65-68;  article 
before,  147,  155, 1  ;  gender  of,  160,  2, 
with  Rem. ;  164. 


Question :  see  Interrogative  Sentences. 


Reciprocal    Pronouns:    84,    197,    306, 

338. 
Reduplication  :  nature  of,  458  ;  in  VII.  CL 


270 


SUBJECT-IJSTDEX. 


of  verbs,  130,  131;  in  the  present, 

457,3. 
Reflexive  Pronouns:    83,337;  personal 

for,  237,  I. 
Relative  Clauses :  see  Adjective  CI. 
Relative  Pronouns :    93  ;   use    of,    254- 

258 ;    origin  of,   254  ;    supplanted  by 

adverbs  and  conjunctions,  257,   258. 

326,327. 
Restrictive  Clauses  :  336. 
Roundness  of  vowels:  367,  1 ;  in  S.  Q.. 

391,5. 
Runes,  492,  2. 
B&ckumlayi :  402, 2 ;  455 


Scandinavian.  479, 11. 

Schriftspi\icke  :  390;  485,  2;  486,487. 

Sentence  :  structure  of  simple,  308;  con- 
stituents of,  308  ;  arrangement  of,  see 
word-order:  various  kinds  of  main, 
3Q9  ;  284,  2  ;  286  :  compound,  see  co- 
ordinate and  subordinate 

Shifting  of  mutes :  see  Grimm's  Law. 

Shifting  of  spirants :  see  Vemer's  Law. 

Silesian  :  482,  6. 

Singular :  see  Number. 

Slavic  :  477  ;  481,  2,  Rem. ;  482,  4-6. 

Sonancy:  376. 

South  Prankish  :  482,  2. 

South  German  Dialects  .  480,  3 ;  483  : 
488,  5,  a  ;  489 ;  490,  1,  a  ;  relation  to 
the  written  language,  391,  392,  4. 

Suabian :  483,  2. 

Subject :  308 ;  concord  Of,  and  predicate, 
311-317  ;  position  of  subject  and  verb, 
341,  356. 

Subjunctive  :  kinds  of,  284  ;  potential, 
284,3;  325.  2.  Rem.  1;  325,  2;  328; 
in  conditional  clauses,  340,  448. 

Subordinate  Sentences  :  318,  323,  324- 
340;  word-order  in,  343,  c;  344- 
346  ;  3.50,  Rem.  ;  omission  of  auxil., 
346  ;  position  of,  358. 

Substantive  Clauses:  323-325;  nature 
of,  323 ;  various  kinds  of,  325  ;  nor- 
mal order  in,  345. 

Superlative :  see  Comparison ;  use  of,  222 
-225;  never  uninflected.  222;  absolute 
and  relative,  222 ;  applied  to  '.wo  ob- 
jects, 225;  of  adverbs,  300,  2. 

Surdness :  376. 

Swedish:  479,  IL 

Swiss :  483, 1,  a. 


Temporal  Clauses  :  330. 

Tenses:  simple,  101,  103,  448;  use  of, 
274,  275,  283. 

Compound:  109,  112-116,  276- 
281 ;  origin  of,  283  ;  position  of  sepa- 
rable prefix,  351.  See  the  separate 
tenses. 

Thuringian  :  482,  4. 

Time  :   modes  of  expressing  time,  226 ; 
G.  of;  187  ;  A.  of,  208. 


Umlaut :  signs  of,  31,  362  ;  as  a  sign  c\ 
the  pi.,  45,  J;  48;  in  comparison  oi 
adj.,  74;  in  pret.  subj.  of  strong  verbs, 
121 :  in  the  ores,  of  strong  verbs,  127, 
Rem.  ;  129,  Rem.  ;  130,  Rem.  ;  131 
Rem. :  404  ;  nature  of,  401  ;  in  Eng  , 
402,  2 ;  spread  of,  488,  1  ;  in  derived 
verbs,  535. 

Upper  Saxon  :  482,  5. 

Variatives :  533. 

Verb :  principal  parts  of,  102 :  infl.  of, 
103 ;  personal  suflixes  of.  104,  118, 
121,  449  ;  classification  of,  264  ;  ir- 
regular weak,  119,  454,  455;  weak 
verbs  are  derivative,  117, 1. 

Reduplicating:  130.  131,458;  non- 
thematic,  see  mi-verbs ;  anomalous, 
134-136. 

Compound  :  137 ;  D.  after,  190 ;  A. 
after,  198,  54  7-550;  accent  in,  421. 

Reflexive,  138  ;  197;  206;  236,2; 
264. 

Impersonal:  subject  of.  236, 1,  2,  5; 
cases  after,  186.  193,  205;  G.  after, 
184-186  ;  D.  after,  189-193  ;  D.  or  A. 
after,  196,  200  ;  A.  after.  198  ;  two  A., 
199,  201;  neuter.  179;  trans.,  191, 
264  ;  intrans.,  264i 

V.  of  motion  :  comp.  tense  of,  265,  4; 
266  ;    283,  3  ;    290,  2  ;    past  part,  of, 
296;    see   Number.  Predicate,   auxil., 
pret.  pres.  verbs  ;  person  of,  in  relative 
clauses,  326  ;    position  of,  341,  350, 
Rem,  ;  derivation  of,  534-550. 
Verner's  Law  :  411,  412,  416. 
Voice:    passive,  infl.  of,  116;    construc- 
tion in,   179.2;    20^,  2;    268-273; 
replaced  by  reflexive  construction,  272  ; 
origin  of,  273  ;  in  Go.,  283,  1. 
Vowel-declension :    see    Noun,    strong : 
428-431.  ^' 

Vowels:  quantity  of,  33-35,  488,  2,  &; 
analysis  and  description  of,  367-373; 
vowel-table,  p.  162 ;  general  remarks 
upon,  373;  doubling  of.  33,363,4; 
connecting  v.  in  conjugation,  118; 
449,  2  ;  454,  2,  3  ;  in  ablaut,  393- 
400;  in  umlaut,  401,  402,  404;  in- 
terchanges of.  403-406 ;  lengthening 
of,  in  W.  H.  G.,  488,  2 ;  shortening  o^ 
488,  3 ;  diphthongization  of  long  v., 
488,  5 
Vowel- stems:  see  Vowel-Declension. 


Wordformation  :  495-659  ;  substan- 
tives, 495-521;  pronouns,  496;  ad- 
jectives, 522-533;  verbs,  .534-550; 
adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions, 
551-558;  interjections,  559. 

Word-order:  341-350;  normal,  342; 
inverted,  343 ;  dependent,  344.  See 
these  separate  heads ;  in  poetry  and 
prose,  3i>9. 

Word-stock:  492-494. 


WOED-INDEX  AND   GEKMAN-ENGLISH 
VOCABULARY.     , 


The  first  contains  a  list  of  the  German  and  English  words,  prefixes  and  suffixes 
specially  treated  in  the  grammar.  Also  the  strong  and  irregular  verbs  with  the  princi- 
pal parts,  and  the  second  or  third  pers.  sing,  of  ihe  pres.  ind,  and  the  imperative  sing., 
if  they  are  at  all  peculiar. 

The  umlauts  have  a  separate  place,  i.  after  a,  6  after  o,  u  after  u. 

The  numbers  refer  to  the  paragraphs.  I.,  II.,  III.,  etc.,  mean  the  strong  verb-classes 
and  ablaut  series. 

After  the  substantives  the  gender  (m.,  «.,/•)  and  the  plural  ending  are  always  indi- 
cated of  the  strong  nouns,  the  gender  and  w.  {=  weak)  are  given  after  the  weak  nouns. 
When  there  is  no  pi.  sign  at  all,  it  is  indicated  by  -.  When  the  cognate  Eng.  word  is 
rare,  or  when  its  meaning  differs  quite  widely  from  the  German  word,  it  is  placed  after 
the  common  Eng.  meaning. 

The  vocabulary  is  meant  to  cover  all  untranslated  single  words  and  illustrative  sen- 
tences as  far  as  §  147,  except  the  foreign  words  63,  3:  63,  2;  64. 

If  weak  verbs  must  have  the  connecting  vowel  this  is  indicated  by  the  preterit. 
-  after  a  word  means  a  prefix  in  composition,  before  a  word  it  means  a  suffix. 


a,  pronnnc.  of,  3;  description  of,  371,  4; 

quantity  of,  before  r,  it,  rb,  33,  488,  2 ; 

in  ablauts.,  VI.,  459,  4  ;  in  ablauts.  I.- 

V.,  459. 
a,  in  Engl,  phrase  "  so  much  a  pound," 

156. 
2ta^,  n.,  pi.  9ticr,  carrion, 
ab,  from,  303,  1;  516,  1. 
aber,  but,  60,  +  word-order,  343,  2;  356; 

comi)ared  with  joubevn,  320,  2  R 
Jlber-,  516,  1. 
a6()aiibon,  lost,  429, 1. 
ab'fc^reiben,  to  copy,  see  yc^reiben. 
5lbt  m.,  'le,  +  abbot. 
ad),  alas,  60;  5.">9,  1. 
a^tcn,  with  G.,  to  attend  to,  in  82;  (ac^; 

tete). 
ae,  as  sign  of  umlaut  of  a,  362,  2. 
aeu  as  sign  of  umlaut,  362,  2. 
Stfter-,  516.  2. 
-a^e,  noun-suffix;    fem.  gender,  161,  2; 

163,  5. 
at,  pronnnc.  of,  32,  372,  1. 
alt, +all,  100;  def.  art.  after,  144;  neuter, 

168;  use  of,  261;  accent,  422,  5. 
aflein,  cow/.,  but;    -i- word -order,  343, rf. 
aUer-, -t-superl.,  222;  accent,  422,  1,6. 


aQerbtna-3,  certainly,  552, 1. 
allcrtte'bft,    charming,   very  lovely,   222  ; 
422,  +  Shakspere's  alderliefest. 

atlma[)tid^,  gradually.  526,  3,  c. 

a\i,  before  a  predicate  noun,  179  ;  in  ap- 
position, 31 7;  before  a  relative  pronoun, 
32  7,  3  ;  in*  temporal  clauses,  330,  1; 
in  comparative  clauses,  3.33,  343,  c ; 
after  comparative,  333,  2 ;  after  adjec- 
tives, ntc^t-o,  anbev-,  333,  2,  a,  3 ;  +  ba§, 
333,  3. 

alt, -fold,  etym.,  453,  1. 

3lUer,  n.,  -,  age,  old  age. 

am  <  an  bem,  +on  the,  40. 

-am,  noun-suf.,  501. 

3lmt,  w.,  -er,  etym.,  516,  3. 

aii,-f-on,  305,  3;  306,1,2;  compared  with 
auf,  300,  2. 

a'l  <  an  ben,  40. 

an'Mnben,  to  tie,  see  Btnben. 

-anb,  noun-suffix,  505. 

attber-,  4- other,  94  ;  accent  in  comp.,423, 
1;  ett/m.,  445,  3;  in  comp.,  530. 

anbert^alb  =  1^,  530. 

^?(nmut,/.,  yio^.,  grace;  gender,  164,  a. 

an'i'djreiben,  to  write  down,  charge,  see 
ft^veifcen. 


272      WORD-IKDEX  AKD   GERMAJT-EKGLISH  VOCABULARY. 


anflatt,  + instead  of,  303,  1;  +  ju  and  inf., 

891,  1,R.;  333,  1. 
3Int-,  516,3. 
-ant,  505. 

Hntirort, /.,  M?.,+an8wer;  gender,  164,  «. 
2lrm,  m,.,  -c, +  arm. 

Hrmut,  /.,  no  pi.,  poverty;  grender,  164,  a. 
-at,  511,  2,  a;   in  neut.  foreign  nouns, 

163,1. 
9Item,  m.,  -§,  no  pi.,  breath.  47,  1;  501. 
atmcn,  to  breathe,  118,  1;  (atmcte). 
au,  pronnnc.  of,  33  ;  analysis  of,  373,  2; 

origin  of,  488,  5;  490,  6. 
au^,  also,  +  eke  ;   in  relat.  clause,  93,  4 ; 

with  irenn,  ob,  339. 
auf,  +  upon,  305,  3 ;  compared  with  an, 

300,  2;   +bai?,  in  order  that.  338. 
au'ferfte^^en,  to  rise  again,  546,  2. 
au'frtd^ten,  to  erect,  (-rt^tete). 
2luge,  n.,  -§,  -n, +  eye. 
a-umlaut,  see  a,  e. 
au§,  +  out  of,  303,  2. 
au^cr,  besides,  303,  3;  ^1^%,  336. 
9ljt,  /.,  -,  +axe,  491,  2;  513,  2. 
a,  pronunc.  of,  31  ;  363  ;    371,  2,  R.  3  ; 

see  umlaut, 
ft^en,  to  bait,  corrode,  +  etch,  535, 1,  R.  2. 
fill,  pronunc.  of,  33;  373,  3;  origin  of, 

488,  5. 
au^ev-,  +  outer,  76,  2. 


B,  pronunc.  of,  4;  description  of,  385,  2; 

final,  385,  3;  „harte5"  b,  383,  1,  R.; 

393,  2;  Eng.  correspondents  of,  408,  2; 

413,  2;  490,  6. 
b-,  see  be-;  557, 1 ;  414,  3. 
batfen,  buf,  gebaden,  +bake,VI.,l  39 ;  (bacfjl, 

bufe);  in  comp.,  538. 
93ab,  «..  -e§,  -cr, +bath. 
i8alfc(n),  m.,  -,  beam,  46,  4. 
iBanb,  n.,  58;  m.,  163,  4;  496. 
33anbe,  /.,  M».,  +  band  (of  robbers,  etc.). 
-bar,  adj.svffix,  536,  l  ;    accent,    434, 

1,6. 
barmbe'mg,  merciful;  nccei/t,  433,  3. 
ba|,  more,  very,  +  better,  76;  etym.,  439. 
23auer,  m.,  w.,  farmer,  63,  2;  63;  strong, 

-,  builder;  n.,  -,  cage. 
95au,  m.,  -c,  see  also  51. 
SBaum,  m.,  — c,  tree, +beam. 
SBar,  m.,  w^+hesx. 

Be-,+be-,  by,  108,  3;  540,  1;  eee  Bci. 
beben,  tremble,  etym.,  457,  3. 
bebarf,  see  bebfirfen. 
bebecfen,  to  cover,  +  deck, 
bebient,  etym.^  395,  2. 
bebingt,  past  part.,  conditioned,  135, 1. 
beburfcn,  +G.,  to  need;  for  infl.  see  135,  2. 
befe^Ien,  befall,  befoblen,  to  command,  IV., 

137;  (befte^lfl,  bcftct)!,  befoblf). 
SBefefttgung, /.,  w.,  fortification, 
befleiftcn,  beffiB,  bcfliften,  I.,  133, 1;  refl.,  to 

apply  oneself  to  ;  (bu  bepei^eft,  bu  or  cr 

beftcipt). 
befreunbcn,  +  befriend;  (befrcunbete). 


begeben,  refl.,  +  G.,  to  give  up,  540,  4;  see 

geben. 
begtnueii,   bcgann,  begonnen,  +  begin,  III., 

135,  2  ;  454,  3  ;  457,  2  ;  (begcnne). 
bel^aupten,  to  assert,  540,  4 ;  (bel)auptete). 
bet, +by,  near,  303,  4;  in  comp.,  516,4. 
beib-,  +  botb,  100;  use  of,  338. 
Setn,  n.,  -e,  leg,  +  bone, 
beiiammen,  together,  in  the  presence  of. 
bei^en,  bip,  gebiffen,  +  bite,  I.,  133, 1 ;  (bu 

beipeil,  bu  or  cv  bet^t). 
beijen,  +  to  bait,  cauterize;  etym.^  535, 1, 

R.  2. 
belefen,  past  part,  well  read.  540,  3. 
beUen,  bcH,  geboUen,  +  to  bark,  \^II.,  133; 

(w.  and  biUft). 
bcne^men,  take  away,  540,  4;  see  ne^men. 
bequem,  convenient,  comfortable,  +  becom- 
ing; 409,3. 
bergeii,  bavg,  geborgen,  hide.  III.,  135,  3  ; 

397;  (birgft,  birg,  barge  and  birge). 
bcritten,  past  part.,  mounted;  534,  4. 
berften,  barft,  gcborftcn,  +  burst.  III.,  135, 3; 

(bu  bivfteft,  bu  or  cr  btrft,  birft  or  berfte ; 

bijrfte  or  barfte). 
93ejagt(er),  the  afore  +  said  146, 1. 
bciti^eiben,  modest,  past  part.,  534,  4. 
befi'cr,  bci't,  +  better,  best,   76,  1 ;   439  ; 

300,  2. 
befui^t,  frequented,  74. 
beten,  to  pray;  (betetc). 
Sctrubuio,/.  or  n..-\)\e,  sadness,  grief, 
^ett,  n.,  -e^,  -en,  +  bied;  ju  —  +to  —  or 

in  — . 
beugcn, +bow  488,5. 
beiregen,  bci»cg,  beiuogen,  to  induce,  VIII., 

133 ;  (berccgjl,  beaege). 
bid,  Eng.,  396. 
btegen,  bog,  gebogcn,  bend,  IT.,  134,  2 ;  (?u 

beugft,  rare). 
93icnc,  /".,  tv.,  fbee,  455,  2. 
bteten,"bct,  geboten,  offer,  II.,  134,  2;  396; 

408,  2;  (er  btetct  and  beut). 
btnben,  banb,  gebunben, +  bind.  III.,  135,1; 

496;  (er  btnbet). 
btnnen,  within.  303,  5;  557,  1. 
JBtnfe,  /.,  w,  +  beutgrass.  490,  2. 
3?ivne,  /.,  w.,  +  pear,  435,  3. 
bi^,  till,  until,  prepos.,  304,  1 ;  conj.,  330, 

3;  etym..  557,  1. 
bitten,  bat,  gebetcn,  ask,  +  bid;  V.,  138,  2; 

199;  333,  1;  457,  1;  466;  (er  bittet). 
blanf,  shining,  74. 
blafen,  blie^,  geblafen,  blow,  VII.,  130,  1; 

(bu  blafefl,  bu  or  cr  blaft). 
bla^,  pale,  74. 

58Iatt,  «.,  -ei\  .:^-er,  leaf, +biade. 
blau,+blue,  74. 

blottcrn,  to  turn  the  leaves  of  a  book. 
93Ici,  n.,  no  pi.,  lead, 
bleiben,  blieb,  geblieben,  remain,  I.,  133,2; 

+  inf.,  390,  8. 
bletc^en,  btib,  cteblt({)en,+bleach,  I.,  133, 1. 
93Wte,  +  blowth,  blossom  ;  etym.,  430,  1. 
SBote,  m.,w  ,  messenger. 
iBoot,  n.,pl.  '^ote,+boat. 
5B6?crcic^f,  m.,  pi.  -<  or  -cr,  rascal,  57,  3  ; 

59. 


WOED-INDEX   AKD   GERMAN^-ElirGLISH   VOCABULARY.      273 


iSranntocin,  m.,  -c, +brandy. 

braten,  brict,  gebraten,  roast,  fry,  Vn.,  130, 

1;  (bratft,  brat). 
braud)en,    need,    compared  with    mun'en, 

267,  4. 
23raut,  /.,  -e, +bride. 
aSrciutigam,  m.,  -e,  +bridegroom,  429,  1. 
bre^en,  brac^,  9ebrc(I}eu,+ break,  IV.,  137; 

(bu  bri(^[t,  bri(^). 
brennen,  brannte,  gcbrannt,  +  burn,  119, 1; 

455;  (bveunte). 
bringen,  bvad)te,  gebradjt,  +  bring,  119,1; 

454,  2;  (brad;te). 
iBronn,  m.,  for  aSrcnnen,    'JSrunnen,  well, 

spring,  +  bourn,  489,  4;  46,  4. 
SSrojatn,  m.,  -c,  crumb ;   sbroiame,  /.,  w., 

47,1;  501. 
S3rot,  w.,  -e,  sometimes  — e,  +  bread. 
§8ruber,  m.,   — ,  +  brotiier,  46,  48,  411, 

415. 
iBrunnen,  see  93ronn. 
33u*,  n.,  — er,  +  book. 
93uUe,+  buli,  see  163,3. 
bunt,  variegated,  74,  5. 
SBurg,/.,  w.,  castle,  397;  in  comp.,  164,  c. 
SBuvfd^,  m.,  -e,  and  w.,  fellow. 


c,  pronuEC.  of,  5;  in  foreign  words,389,  3. 
6ayu§Iel)re,  /.,  xo.,  theory  of  the  cases  (of 

nouns). 

causeway,  causey,  +Sftaufice,  494,  3. 

e^,  pronunc.  of,  6;  375,4;  378,3;  383 
1;  description  of,  375;  quantity  of  vowel 
before,  35;  Eng.  correspondents  of,  410, 
3 ;  414,  3  ;  41.5,  1,  3 ;  490,  3  ;  d)-  g, 
416;  c^  —  f,  493, 4;  c^  —  f,  535,  1,  R.  2. 

ch,  Ger.  correspond,  of,  414,  3;  535,  1, 
R.  2. 

-d)en,  +  -kin,  46, 1;  493,  4;  510;  neuter 
gend.,  161,  3;  pronunc.  of,  6;  375,2. 

-cl}e(n),  in  verbs,  .536, 1. 

&)V.\i,  m.,  ■?f'.,  + Christian,  435,  3. 

choose, +  fieien,  416,  1. 

^\,  (i)g,  pronunc.  of,  39,  383, 1;  490,  3,  a. 

d,  14  ;  383,  1 ;  Eng.  correspondents  of, 
413,  4;  414,  3;  rf  —  d>,  535,  1,  R.  3. 


^. 


b,  pronunc.  of,  7,  385,  3;  description  of, 
384,  2.  Eng.  correspondents  of,  410, 1; 
413,  1,  a;  415;  b  —  t,  416. 

-b,  511, 1. 

ba,  +  there,  adiK\  before  a  prepos.  begin- 
ning with  a  vowel,  bat;  in  relat.  clause, 
358,  33  7,  2  ;  in  local  clauses,  331,  a  ; 
=  because,  since  In  causal  clauses,  33  7; 
=  as.  when  in  temporal  clauses,  .330, 1, 
2;  etym.,  551,  1;  after  demonstr.  pron., 
345,  3. 

1)ac^,  w.,  -er,  roof,  +  thatch. 

ba(^te,  see  bentert,  also  417,  1. 

®arae,  /.,  w.,  lady,  +  dame. 

bami't,  coTy*.,  in  order  that,  338, 


ba'mit, +  ba^  =  by  +  part,  clause,  337 

®ant,  m.,  -e§  ;  pi.  of,  see  173. 

bavf,  see  biirfcn. 

ba§,  +  that ;  see  ber ;  peculiar  use  of,  168; 

for  G.,  183. 
ba^,  +  that,  conj. ;  in  substantive  clauses, 

335  ;   +  nic^t  =  without  +  part,  clause, 

333  ;   in  other  adverbial  clauses,  335, 

336,  338. 
bau^t,  see  beuc^t. 
-be,  noun-suffix,  511,2. 
®e^mingg=b,  363,  2.  3. 
bein,  G.  of  bu,  81 ;   possessive  pronoun, 

85. 
bciner,  G.,  see  bein. 
bemungeaa;tet,  notwithstanding,  »re».,  303, 

10. 
benfen,ba(i^te,gebac^t,+ think,  119,2;  403, 

2;  454,  3;  (bdt^te).    Inf.  as  noun,  bag 

2)enfen. 
®cnfmal,  n.,  monument;  iov pi.  see  58. 
benn,  +  then,  for,  301,  1 ;  causal  conjunc- 
tion, 331,  337;  after  comparative,  333, 

2;  in  restrictive  clauses,  336;  origin  of, 

551,  1. 
ber,  +  the,   def.   art.,   38-40 ;    demonstr. 

pronoun   88,443;  lengthened  forms  in 

en,  er,  344,  2;  relat.  pronoun,  93. 
berart  ba^,  so  that,  335. 
beren  (G.  pL\  88,  93. 1;  use  of.  344, 1. 
berent-,  87,  89. 

be'rgeftalt  ba^,  in  such  a  manner  that,  335. 
berer,  see  beren. 

berjenige,  he,  that  one,  91,  1;  347. 
bero,  89,  443. 

beri'elbe,  -felbtge,  the  same,  91. 
beriDeil,  +  while,  330. 
be§,  bei  beffen,  89. 
beffent-,  89. 
befto,  +  the,    443,  a ;   correlative   of   <e, 

384. 
beud)t  <  banten,  1 1 9,  2  ;  454,  3. 
beuty^,  German  (  +  Dutch),  413,  1,  a. 
®eutfd»lanb,  n.,  Germany, 
-dge,  Ger.  correspondents  of,  413,  4. 
■Dti^ter,  m..  -,  poet, 
ti^,  +  thee.  Ace.  of  bu,  q.  v. 
bie, +  the,  fem,  def.  art.,  see  ber. 
bieS,  btefCer),  +  this,  90;  etym.,  443  ;  use 

of,  345,  346;  bieS  unb  bas,  jeneg,  345,2; 

supplanted  by  adverb  +  prepos.,  346. 
biereeil,  +  while,  330;  because,  337,  1. 
CDtng,  /1..  + thing;,  for  pi.  see  .58. 
bingen,  bang  or  bung,  gebungcu,  III.,  135, 1. 
biv,  +thee,  D.  of  bu,  q.  v. 
bod^,  adv.,  yet,  after  all,  +  though,  343,  e. 
'Doftor,  m.,  -§,  pi.  -o'ren,  63,  2. 
bDppeI-,+ double,  531,  1. 
®rangfal,  /.,  -e,  distress. 
brey(^en,  \ixaS&i  or  bro^d),  gebrofi^en,  +  thresh, 

III.,   135,  3  ,    133  ;  (brajc^e  or  brofd)e, 

brii(^e[t,  bu  and  er  brifi^t,  brtfd),  also  weak, 

brcid)eft,  bve^dje). 
bringen,  brang,  gebrungen,  to  penetrate,  HI., 

135,  1;  (brange). 
brttt-,+ third,  410,  1;  530. 
bvurfcn,  to  print  I  p-ok  o 
brttctcn,  to  press  y  *''^'^  '*• 


274    woRD-ixDEX  a:n^d  german-english  yocabulart. 


bumpf,  hollow  (sound),  +  damp,    musty 

(air),  74,  5. 
tuiifel,  dark,  compar.  tunKcv, 
fcuvt^,  +  Ihrouirh,  304,  2  ;   compar.  with 

ten,  369;  with  tiuttcl-5  and  iiiit,  30*J,  7  ; 

separable  and    iusep.  prefix  in   comp. 

verbs,  549,  1. 
'Durc^laudjt,  /.,  «;.,  Serene  Highness, 
bilnfen,    bflnfte,    gcciinft,    impers.   verb,    it 

seems,  +  (me)  thinks,  119,  2;  454,  3. 
tfirfcn,  biirfte,  gebuvft,  to  be  permitted;  infl., 

135,  2;  past  part,  108,  2;  use  of,  367, 

2;  elym.,  416. 


e,  pronunc.  of,  8  ;  description  of,  371, 1- 
3;  unaccented,  371,3;  485,2;  sign  of 
length,  33,  363.1;  siffn  of  umlaut,  363; 
before  r,  rt,  rb,  33,  488,  2;  sign  of  plu- 
ral, 47,  49,  51,  53;  in  cardinals,  33  7; 
in  the  adj. -suffixes  -cl,  -or,  -en,  71;  con- 
necting vowels  in  conjugation,  118  ; 
in  case-suffix,  43,  46  ;  derivative  c  in 
verbs,  535,  536 ;  secondary  before  r, 
491,  2;  c  -  i,  ic,  137,  138,  403;  e  —  i\ 
489,1. 

-e  in  imperative,  105;  118,  3. 

-c  in  nouns  <  adj.,  498, 1;  gender  of  such 
nouns,  161,  2. 

-e  in  Jo-stems,  46,  47,  51,  437,  3  ;  498, 
2;  gender  of  such  nouns,  161,  3. 

-c  in  adverbs,  554,  1. 

c^t,  genuine,  etym.,  488,  3,  a. 

Gde,/.,  w.,  corner,  +  edge,  413,  4. 

cbcl,  noble,  404,  71. 

e^c,  before,  +  ere,  76,  2,  6;  439,  2  ;  conj., 
330,  3. 

ci,  pronunc.  of,  33  ;  analvsis  of,  373,  3 ; 
origin  of,  488,  5. 

-ei,  noun-suffix,  498,  3 ;  gender  of  such 
nouns,  161,  2, 

Gibatn,  m.,  -c,  son-in-law,  47,  1 ;  501. 

-cicn,  verb-suffix  <  French  verbs  in  -ier, 
538. 

eigen, +  own,  a(^.,  470;  471,  6;  534,  4. 

etgcntumUc^,  accent  and  meaning,  433,  2. 

cilcn,  to  hasten. 

eim  <  cineni,  D.  of  cin,  q,  v.,  41, 1. 

©imcr,  pail,  etym.,  398. 

cin,  +a,  one,  indef.  art.,  38,  41;  after  wetd), 
wa-i  fur,  93,  2,3;  in^ef.  pronoun,  73, 
95,  359,  300;  etn  par,  cin  luenig,  a  few, 
a  little,  100. 

etn,  adv.,  +  in;  —  unb  au»,  +  in  and  out; 
538,  7. 

cinanber,  4  one  another;  uninflected,  84. 

cingeBoren,  for  two  meanings  see  538,  5,7. 

cintg-,  indef.  pron.^  some,  95  ;  o^/m  + 
united. 

eininal, -t-once,  39,  41 

ci'nncf)men,  take  possession  of,  see  nef)mcn. 
In  85  gencmmcn  etn  for  cingenemmen  by 
poetic  license. 

(Stnobc,/.,  w.,  solitude,  desert,  511,  a. 

ein^,  +  one,  531,  2;  for  cognate  Ace, 
304. 


cinil,  +  once,  531,  2;  555,2. 

ei'nfiubie\cn,  to  study  well,  commit  to 
memory. 

cin^eln,  adv.,  singly,  555,  3. 

eitet,  vain  ;  uninflected  "  nothing  but," 
313,1. 

-el,  noun-sutfix,  46,  438,  5;  499;  gender 
of  such  nouns,  161.  1;  161.  3;  adi. -suf- 
fix, 71.  533,  1;  verb-suffix.  106.' 

clenb,  wretched  ;  efym.,  401,  among  Ex- 
amples. 

elf, +eleven,  77;  539. 

elk,+(Sl^,  eientter,  490,  3. 

-eht,  in  verb?*,  536 ;  connecting  vowel 
in   -,  118,3. 

(Sltern,  parents,  +  elders,  174,  404. 

-em  in  nouns,  501,  533,  2. 

emp-<  ent-,  541. 

enipfe^ten,  enivfabi,  cntpfcfilen,  recommend. 
IV.,  137;  464,3;  (empfe^le,  tu  cnivfic^lft, 

-en,  noun-suffix,  46;  438,  5;  501;  503  ; 
indicates  masc.  gend.,  160.  1 ;  in  the 
n-declension,  61,  63  ;  in  the  pi.  of  for- 
eign nouns.  64,  2,  3  ;  in  D.  and  A.  ot 
proper  nouns.  66;  in  G  sg.  of  adj.  for 
e-3,  73;  91,  3;  316,  1;  in  pronouns, 
344,  2  ;  440,  2  ;  in  mixed  declension, 
63;  in  comp.  noims,  518,  1,  2. 

Adj.-suffix,  71;  311;  534.  In  the 
past  part.,  107;  453;  503;  534.  In 
the  inf.,  106;  451.    In  adverbs,  551. 

-enb  (nb),  in  the  pres.  part.,  107;  in  nouns, 
505;  in  the  gerund,  107. 

Gnbe,  n.,  -o,  -n,  -i-end. 

enge,  narrow,  408,  4. 

6ngel,  m.,  -,  + angel. 

-en?,  adv.-suffix,  555,  2 

ent-,  541. 

ente,  duck,  430, 1. 

entgegcn,  +  against,  "to  meet,"  303,  6; 
557, 1;  see  gegen. 

entfagen,  to  renounce. 

entrceber  ( —  ober),  +  either  —  or,  343,  rf,  2; 
558. 

er,  he,  81. 

er  for  ^'gierr,  gentleman,  Mr.,  230,  %. 

-cr,  noun-suffix,  438,  5;  65,  507;  indi- 
cates masc.  gend.,  161,  1;  163,3;  as 
sign  of  plural,  56,  431. 

Adj.-suffix,  71,  533, 3;  507,  2  ;  in  ad- 
verbs, 5,51  ;  556;  compar.  suffix,  79; 
438  ;  in  the  G.  of  pronouns,  83,  88, 
344,  2 ;  440,  2 ;  in  verbs,  see  -evn. 

cr-,  543. 

erbc,  double  gender,  162,  3;  neut.  pl.Grbe 
is  rare. 

drbe,/.,  w.,  + earth,  63,  R. 

-erei,  noun-suffix,  497,  3,  R 

erftaben,  lofty,  139,  R.;  534,  4. 

erf alten,  to  grow  cold  i535  2 

erfalten,  reti.,  to  catch  cold  f      '  '    * 

-evUc^,  adj.-sutlix,  536,  3,  c. 

erI6id)en,  erlofc^,  crlof^en,  to  go  out  (candle, 
fire),  \ail.,  133;  (erltfc^eft,  bu  and  et  er^ 
Uid>t,  critfdi), 

-ern,  adj.-suffix,  524,  3;  adj.  in  — ,  unin- 
flected, 311. 


WORD-IXDEX   AND   GERMAN-EKGLTSH  VOCABULARY.      275 


-er(n),  verb-sufflx,  537,  2  ;  connecting 
vowel  in,  118,  3. 

enei(^cn,  + reach,  attain. 

erf(l)aUen,  erf(i)oU,  cric^oUen,  resound,  VIIL, 
133  ;  (eg  erf(f)aUt). 

erfct)ieiieii,  erfct)rat,  evidjioiJen,  to  be  fright- 
ened, IV.,  12  7;  (crict)ric£ft,  crj^vid);  when 
trans,  generally  weak. 

Cift,  first,  +  erst,  76,  2,  6;  439,  2. 

erioagen,  erraog,  cncogen,  consider,  VIII., 
133  ;  (ericagft). 

ern3af)nen,  to  mention  ;  etytn.,  457,  2. 

6r3-  +  arch-,  516,6. 

e§,  +  it,  N.  and  A.  8g  neut.,  81;  peculiar 
uses  of,  336  ;  gender,  168  ;  replacing 
cognate  A.,  204  ;  236,  6  ;  G.  of  masc. 
and  neuter,  82  ;  183;  A.  supplanted  by 
prepos.,  234,1;  indefinite  subject,  236, 
1,2,4,  5;  grammatical  subject  and  exple- 
tive —  there,  236,  3;  313;  position  of 
eg  (A.),  352,  e ;  eg  (N.)  and  inversion, 
236,  3,  a. 

eg  fei  beuu,  bafj,  unless,  339;  340,  2. 

effen,  a^,  gcgeffen+eat,  V.,  128,  1;  (bu  tffeft 
or  i^t,  cr  i^t,  t^) ;  pres.  part.,  294,  1 ; 
etym.,  409,  1;  466. 

(Sffig,  vinegar,  +  acid,  509. 

etltc^-,  some,  96. 

eticad,  something,  anything,  somewhat, 
96;   199,  1;   260. 

eu,  pronunc.  of,  32  ;  analys.  of,  372,  3  ; 
origin  of,  488,  5;  eu  —  ie,  406. 

eucl)  +  you,  D.  and  A.  of  i^r,  q.  v.,  81;  refl., 
83;  i-eciprocal,  84;  238. 

eiier  +  your,  possessive  pron.,  85, 

eurev  for  eiier  (G.),  82. 

e». +your,  86;  311,  2. 


3f. 

f,  pronunc.  of,   9 ;   description  of,  380 ; 

Eng.  correspondents  of,  410,  2;  414,  2; 

415,  1;  493,  4;  f  —  b,  416. 
-fac^,  -fold,  531,  1. 

%a6^,n.,  -er  (and-e);  compartment,  pigeon- 
hole; 
j^aben,  m.,  pi.  and  meanings,  see  48, 1. 
faf)eit,  archaic  for  fangen,  q.  v. ',   417,   1; 

458,  2. 
fa^ren,   fu^r,  gefa^ren,  drive,  +  fare,  VI., 

129;  400;  467;   +fpa3teren,  290,  2; 

(fa^rft). 
ga^rt,/.,  zv.,  journey,  ride,  430,  1,  a. 
faaeit,  fiel,  gefaaen,  +  fall,  VII.,   130,  1 ; 

458,2;  (taUft). 
^.aM,  adverbial  G.  in  comp.,  =  case,  91, 3; 

conj.,  340. 
fali'd}  +  false,  74,  5. 
fangen,  fiiig,  gefangen,  to  catch,  VII.,  130, 

1;  (fang[t). 
far  +  tern,  76,2. 

taffen,  to  seize,  (bu  fajfeyi  or  fa^t),  118,  4. 
fa^,  almost,  300,  1;  554,  1. 
tautenjen,  to  be  lazy,  539,  3,  a. 
j^a^rte,/.,  w  ,  trade,  430,  1,  a. 
faUen,  to  fell,  535, 1,  a. 
-faittg  +  -fold,  531, 1. 


fec^ten,  fo^t,  gefoc^ten  +  fight,  VIII.,  1 33  ; 

(bu  ftdjtft,  fi^t,  also  weak). 
geber,/.,  t(j.,+ feather,  pen. 
tet)leu+fail,  lack,  494. 
Setnb,  m.,  -e,  enemy,  +  fiend,  505;  partial 

ac^.,  219. 
A-elb,  «.,  -er,  field. 

feft,  firm,  554, 1. 

geuer,  «.,+fire;  pi.  of,  173. 

gtc^teigebtige,  n.,  a  mountain  range  in  N.  E. 

Bavaria,  <  bie  gtdjte,  fir. 
finbett,  ]ant>,  getunbcn  +  find.  III.,  125, 1; 

464;  (finbcft). 
gint,  m.,  ?^'.,  +  finch. 

rnct)cn+fish  (bu  fiidieft  or  fifd^t,  er  fifd^t),  118. 
5;nfternig,  /.,  -niffe,  darkness. 
flac^,  shallow,  le\  el,  74,  5. 
fled^ten,  floc^t,  geflo^ten,  to  braid,  VIII.,  133; 

(bu  flid^tft  or  flid)ft,  er  fUdtt,  fltc^t  or  flcc^te). 
glejiouglcl^ve,  /.,  w.,  accidence. 
Piegen,  flog,   geflegcu,  +  fly,  II.,  124,   2 ; 

(fleugft,  fteug  are  archaic), 
fliel^cn,  jlofi,   gefloI)eu,  +  flee,  II.,  124,  2; 

490,  3,  b;  (fteud?ft.  ficud)  are  archaic), 
fliepeu,  Ho\i,  gcfto^eu,  II.,  124, 1    535,  1,  a; 

(bu,  er  flcu^t,  archaic). 
glo^,  n„  -e,  +  raft,  54  ;  429, 1. 
flofjen  +  to  float,  trans.,  535,  1,  a. 
5Dlgenb(Co)  f  the  following,  146, 1. 
forlorn,  416,  1. 
fort  +  forth,  on,  76,   '. 
fv-,  545;  see  »er-. 

fvagen,  fvug,  to  ask,  129;  457,2;  construc- 
tion after,  199. 
(Vrau,  /.,  w.,  woman,  wife,  Mrs. 
i^rauenjimmer,  n.,  -,  lady;  166. 
giftulein,  w.,  -,  young  lady.  Miss,  166. 
fret  +  free, 
freili^,  to  be  sure,  300,  1;   339;   554, 

2,  a. 
frefien,  fra^,  gefrcffcn,  +  eat,  V.,  see  effen  ; 

108,3;  128,1. 
gieunb,  m.,  -e,  + friend,  505. 
ber  5riebe(n),  m.,  no  pi.,  peace,  46,  4; 

47,2. 
friercu,  frov,  gefvoven,  to  freeze,  II.,  124,?, 
fro^,  cheerful,  74,  5. 
fromm,  pious;  harmless, 
frug,  pret.  of  fragen,  129,  461. 
fvu|^,  early.  300,  1;  554,  1. 

tunben,  past  part,  of  finben,  453,  2. 

guufe(n),  m.,  spark;  see  46,  4. 

Auvc^e,    /".,  m;.,  + furrow,  430,  1. 

further,'  76,  2. 

mi^,  m.,  -eg,  -e,  +  foot,  430, 1. 

5vud)fin  /.,  pi.  -inneii,  + vixen,  504. 

fii^reu,  to  guide,  535,  1,  a. 

JyuUcn,  colt,  +  foal,  502,  2. 

fur  +  for,   76,  2,  b  ;    304,  3 ;    306,  9 ; 

516,  5. 
fiirbap,  onward,  76,  1. 
favd)ten,  to  fear;  (fuvdjtete);  454,  3. 
firhe'b  nef)mcn,  to  put  up  with,  528,  7. 
Pvft,  m.,  w.,  prince,  76,  2,  6;  439,  2. 


276      WORD-IN^DEX   AXD    CTERMAiq"-Eiq^GLISn   VOCABULARY. 


g,  pronunc.  of,  10;  375,  3,  4;  391,  2;  in 
foreign  words,  378,  4:  383,  1,  Rem.; 
after  n  in  N.  G.,  383, 1,  a;  Eng.  corre- 
spondents of,  408,  3,  4;  gcj,  493,  4;  de- 
scription of,  383,  2;  see  gc-. 

gan  —  gunneii  >  gCMinen,  471,  5. 

ganj,  whole. 

gar,  ac^.,  done;  otfc.,  even,  very  ;  +m(^t, 
not  at  all. 

©arberobe,  /.,  m'.,  +  wardrobe, 

giren,  gor,  gcgorcn,  to  ferment,  Vm.,  133; 
(gavft,  i-arely  gicrft,  often  weak  through- 
out). 

ge-,  g-,  516,  7;  543;  in  the  past  part., 
107,  108  •  453,  2  ;  528  ;  in  nouns  of 
neuter  gend.,  161,  3 ;  in  p.  p.  of  com- 
pound verbs,  546,  2. 

gcbaren,  gebar,  geboven,  to  bring  forth, 
+  bear;  IV.,  127,398  ;  (pret.  subj.  gcs 
bare,  bu  gebierft,  gebter). 

geben,  gab,  gegeben,  + give,  v.,  128,1;  (giebfl, 
gieb);  466;  impersonal,  205;  236,4; 
399. 

©ed,  m.,w.,  coxcomb. 

©ebac^t(er),  the  above  mentioned,  146,  1 ; 
<  gcbenlen,  g.  v. 

©ebanfe(n),  m.,  +  thought,  see  46,  4  ; 
47,  2. 

gebenfcn,  gebac^te,  gebo^t,+ think  of,  men- 
tion; see  benten. 

gebeil^en,  gebte^,  gebiel^en,  thrive,  I.,  122,  2. 

©ebi^t,  «.,  -e,  poem. 

gebiegen,  a^.,  solid,  pure,  past  part,  of  ge- 
feei^en,  according  to  Verners  Law,  411; 
524,  4. 

®efalle(n),  m.,  pleasure  (in),  favor,  see  46, 
4;  47,2. 

gegen  +  against,  304,  4 ;  see  entgegen,  ju, 
nad),  urn. 

gcgeniiber,  opposite,  303,  7 

ge|en,  gtng,  gegangcn,  +  go,  VH.,  130,  1; 
136,  1;  457,2;  474;  +inf.,  290,  2; 
past  part.,  296;  (bu  gc^ft,  ge^e). 

gjg  [for  meaning,  etc.,  see  162,  3. 

©eift,  m.,  -er, +ghost;  wit. 

geijen,  to  be  stingy,  etym.^  539. 

©clb  unb  ©ut,  lit.  money  and  property = all 

one's  possessions, 
gelegen,  convenient,  524,  4. 
getingen,  gclang,  gelungen,  to  be  successful 

(in),  lit,  125,1. 
gelten,  gait,  gegclten,  to  be  worth,  valid,  lU., 

121,  125,3;  impersonal,  205;  (goltc  — 

gaite,  bu  gtltft,  cv  gilt,  Imper.  geltc  as  a 

rule), 
©emat^,  n.,  "  cr,  apartment.  * 

gema^,  according  to,  303  8. 
©cmilt,  «,.,  -er,  soul,  disposition, 
gen,  towards,  304,  4. 
©enera'l,  m.,  -e  or  — e,+gcneral. 
gcncicn,  genag,  gene^en,  to  recover,  V.,  128, 

Ij  (bu  gcttcfeft,  er  gencft,  gene?e). 
geme^en,  gene^,  geno^fen,  to  enjoy,  IL,  124, 

1;  (bu  genieieft  or  genie^t). 
^eriit^,  small,  compar.  of,  76, 1. 


gcfc^afttii,  busy. 

gefd}ebcu    ge^ab,  gef(^e^cn,  to  happen,  V.. 

128,  1;  (e^  geid)tcbt). 
©ci^led^t,  n.,  -er,  race,  generation, 
©eic^meite,  n.,  -,  set  of  jewelry, 
ge^djmeige,  co;y.,=say  nothing  of,  233. 
©efelle,  wi.,  w.,  journeyman,  fellow,  com- 
panion, 
©efellfc^aft,  f.,w.,  company,  party, 
©eji^t,  ;i.,see  57,  58. 
©ei'penfi,  n.,  -er,  spook,  ghost, 
geffen,  past  part,  of  ejfen,  128,  R. 
geftalt,  shaped,  past  part.  <  Pellen,  455, 3. 
gefunb  +  sound,  wholesome,  74,  5. 
©etreibe,  n.,  -,  grain,  etym..  511. 
getrofi,  confident,  419;'  past  part.  <  troflen, 

455,  3. 
©ewatter,  m.,  -,  +god-father. 
©etcanb,  w.,-c,  'lev,  garment,  58. 
getoanbt,  active,  clever,  74,  5;  past  part,  of 

TOenben,  455,  3. 
©ewerbe,  n.,  -,  trade, 
©eicimmel,  n.,  -,  swarming, 
geicinneit,  gcit>aim,  gcironnen,  win,  m.,  125, 

2;  (geircune  —  gcirdnne). 
gh,  G.  correspondents  of,  415,  1. 
gcanp,  certain,  etym.,  412,  2  ;  past  part. 

453,  1. 
giefeen,  go^,  gcgcfjen, +to  pour,  11.,  124, 1 

(geii^t,  geu^  rare,  gie^eft  or  gie^t). 
©ift,  n.,  -e,  poison,  +  gift ;  etym.,  399 

403,  1;  gender  of,  162,  3. 
©laS,  n.,  -I'eo,  -jer, +glass,  492,  3. 
glauben  +  to  believe. 
©laube(n),  wi.,  + belief,  see  46,4 
glet^  +  like;  for  fcgleid)=: immediately;  +in- 

verted  order,  339. 
-gleti^en,  in  comp.  with  pron  ,  +  the  like  of, 

87. 
glcic^en,    glic^,    gcglidjcn,  to    be    like,   I., 

122,  1. 
gteifen,  w.  v.,  deceive,  122, 1. 
glet^en,  gli^,   gegliften,  +  glitter,  L,  122,  1; 

bu  glci^eft  or  glei^t,  er  gteiijt). 
gleiten,  glitt,  geglitten,  +  glide,  I.,  122,  1; 

(er  gleitet). 
glimmen,  glcmm,  gegtcmmen,+ to  glimmer, 

vm.,  133. 
©nabe,  /.,  w.,  grace, 
©olb,  n.,  no  pi.,  gold, 
©ott,  m.,  -e«,  ^cr,  +God,  408,  3. 
gonnen,  not  to  grudge;  etym.,  471,  5. 
graben,  grub,  gegraben,  to  dig,  VI.,  129;  (bu 

grabft). 
greifen,  griff,  gcgriffen,  to  seize,  L,  122,  1. 
gretncn,  gi\cn,  gcgvioncn,  +  grin  (generally 

weak,  rare),  1.,  122, 1. 
©raf,  7/1.,  w.,  <  oiint. 
©riffcl,  m.,  -,  style  (slate-pencil). 
grinfen,  +  grin<  grcincn,  122,  1. 
grDp  + great;  compar  of,  73. 
©ro^muttcr,  /.,  -,  + grandmother. 
grupcn  + greet;  (bu  gruijcft). 
gut  +  good  ;  compar.  of,  76,  1 ;  compared 

with  JCoM,  299,  2,  a;  439. 
gaiben+ golden,  524,  2. 


WORD-INDEX   AND   GERMAN-ENGLISH   VOCABULARY.      277 


^,  pronnnc.  of,  11 ;  description  of,  374 
Eng.  correspondents  of,  410,3;  415,1 
silence  of,  33;  363,  2;  491,  2;  loss  of 
415,  3;  sign  of  length,  33,  363,  2,  3 
^  —  ^,73;  490,3,6;  ^  —  g,  134,  Rem. 
416. 

1)aim  +  have,  infl.  of,  110;  contracted 
forms,  111,  1;  impersonal,  805  j  in 
comp.  tenses,  265  ;  883,  1,  2  ;  +  inf., 
290,  1. 

-:^aft,  adj.-suffix,  526,  2. 

f^ageftelj,  m-,  w.,  bachelor;  pi.  also  -e. 

:^alt,  before  cardinals,  226,  2;  after  ordi- 
nals, 229,  1. 

-^alten,  f or  .  . .  sake  (of),  comp.  with  pro- 
nouns, 87,  89;  prep.,  302,  4. 

Batter  +  half,  prep.,  302,  4. 

gotten,  ^telt,  ge^aUen,  + hold,  VII.,  130,1; 
(bu  Hltft,  er  ^alt). 

^anb,  /.  -e,+hand,  53;  429,  1. 

-^anben,  in  comp.,  429,  1. 

l^anbeln,  to  act,  trade. 

:^anbgemein  (werben),  to  come  to  blows, 
219. 

§anbi(^ut),  m.,  -e,  glove. 

l^angen,  ^ing,  gcl)angcn,  +  hang  (intr.)^'VTl., 
130, 1:  (bu  pngft). 

Bafjen+tohate,  414, 1  Ex.;  bu  :^affeji or  ^ajjt. 

l^aft+hast,  see  l}aben. 

§ap,+hate,  414,  lEx. 

l^at  +  has,  see  I)at>en. 

^aucn,  l^iet,  ge^auen,  +  hew,  strike,  Vn., 
131;  (bu^auft). 

§aufe(n),  »i.,+heap,  crowd,  troop,  46,  4. 

§au§,  n.,  -^e«,  —\ix,  +  house ;  —  unb  ^of, 
house  and  farm,  —  and  home. 

:^au^  +  out  here  <  $ie  +  au^,  41,  1. 

^aupten,  D.  pi.,  see  59. 

§e6el,  m.,  -,  lever. 

:^e6en,  ^ob  (^ub),  gefioBen,  VL,  129;  VIII., 
132  ;  457,  1 ;  467  ;  (^66e  —  ^abe,  bu 
^ebft). 

§e^l,  n.  and  m.,  no  pl.^  concealment;  in  82 
he  makes  no  secret  of  it .  .  . 

§eibe,  m.,  t^;.,  +  heathen,  162,  3;  435,  3. 

^eimUic^unv3,/.,  w.,  visitation. 

^eint  +  this  night,  44.3,  2. 

^eirat,  /".,  w.,  marriage,  511,  a. 

^etiev+ hoarse. 

l^eipen,  ^ie^,  ge^ei^en,  command,  be  called, 
+  hight,  Vn.,  108,  1;  131,  458.  2;  in- 
trans.,  179,  1;  trans.  201;  +inf.,  290, 
2,  4  ;  +past  part.,  296,  2  ;  (bu  :^ei^eftor 
^i'v^t,  er  ^et^t). 

-I)cit  +  -head,  515,  1 ;  indicates  fern,  gen- 
der, 161,  2;  431,  2. 

fetter,  serene,  71. 

^elb,  m.,  w.,  hero. 

^etfen,  balf/  gebolfen,  +  help.  III.,  125,3; 
past  part,  of,  108,  1;  464;  +inf.,  290, 
2  ;  (bu  ^ilfft,  ^ttf). 

§emb,  w.,  -e§,  -en,  shirt. 

^er  +  hither,  +  here,  443,  2. 

^evr,  m.,  w.,  lord,  master,  Mr.;  reduced  to 
er,  230,  3  ;  short  c,  488,  3. 

^etriti^/  splendid. 


l^ertoo'rt^un,  refl.,  to  distinguish  one's  self; 

see  t^un. 
^era,  w.,  +  heart,  infl.  of,  63,  1  ;  435, 1. 
^ei'jog,  m.,  -e, +duke,  416, 1. 
§erjcgtuni,  n.,  —er,  + dukedom. 
:^efeen,  incite,  hunt,  535,  1,  b,  R.  2. 
^euer+this  year,  443,  2. 
^eute  + to-day,  443,  2. 
^ier  +  here,  after  pron.,  245,  3 ;  etym.. 

443,  2. 
^immel,  m.,  -,  heaven, 
bin,  thither,  away,  443,  2. 
:^inter  +  behind,  prep.y  306,  4 ;  in  comp. 

verbs,  549,  2;  ac^..,  76,  2. 
§trte,  m.,  w.,+ herdsman, 
his  —  its,  243,  2. 
|o(^  +  high,   73  ;   490,  3,  b.    Infl.  ^o^er, 

:^o^e,  ^ot)eg. 
§offart,/.,  no.pl.^  pride,  528,  2,  b. 
^offen+hope. 

^0^1+ hollow,  compar.  74. 
bolb,  gi'acious,  compar.  74,  405. 
^olen,  fetch,  +  hale,  haul. 
§Dpfen,  fw.,  -,  +hops. 
^ofC//-}  w.,  trousers,-!- hose, 
pren -I- hear,  instead  of  geprt,  108,1;  113; 

-finf.,  290,3. 
§utb,  /.,  no  pl.^  favor,  grace,  405 
§unb,  w.,  -e,  dog, -)- hound. 
§unbert,  n.,  -e,-f- hundred,  226  ;  529,  2. 
^2>afte,  /.,  w.,-i-hip,  430,  1 ;  512,  2. 
§anbc^en,  w.,  -,  little  dog. 


3. 

t,  pronunc.  of,  12  ;  description  of,  369,1, 

2 ;    <  ie.  488,  4 ;    <  ft,   489,  2 ;    <  e, 

489,  5. 
i^  +  I,  81. 
-i(^,  509  ;  indicates  masc.  gend.,  161, 1 ; 

489,  5. 
-i{^t,  509,1;  525,3. 

ie,  pronunc.  of,  33,  3;   seei;  in  redupli- 
cating verbs,  CI.  VII.,  458,  2;  488,  3,  a. 
ie  -  eu,  124,  406. 
-ie,  noun-suffix,  489,  4;  493,  2;  indicates 

fem.  gender,  161,  2. 
-ieren,  verbs  in,  108, 4;  493,  2;  538, 
-ig,  +  -y,  adj.-suffix,  525,  1-3;  489,  5; 

for  -t^,  509;  526,  3,  C. 
-tgen,  verb-suf.,  539,  4. 
-igtett,  515,  2. 
-tglic^,  adj.-suf.,  525,  2. 
tbm,  t^n,  i^nen,  see  er,  fie,  e6,  pers.  pron. 
i^r,  poss.  pron.,  her,  their,  with  cap.  your, 

85;  origin  of,  243,2. 
i^ver,  G.  of  pers.  and  poss.  pron.,  see  fie, 

i^r. 
3^ro,  your,  86  ;  441,  2. 
in -I- in,  306,  5  ;  for  in  ben,  40. 
-in,  noun-suffix,  504  ;  fem.  gender,  161, 

2;  167;  430,3. 
inbein,  co/y.,  while,  330, 1;  332;  because, 

337. 
-ing,  noun-suffix,  506. 
inner + inner,  76,  2. 
inner^alb,  within,  prep..^  302. 


278      WORD-INDEX    Ai^D   GERMAN-ENGLISH   VOCABULARY. 


in  fcfcrn,  in  wiefern,  +in  so  far  as,  336. 

trbif^  +  eartlily. 

irgent,  any,  with  pron.  and  adv.,  860. 

Srrtum,  m.,  -er, +  error,  56. 

-if^  +-ish,adj.-sufflx,  811;  514;  585,4. 

its.  843,2. 


3. 

J,  pronunc.  of,  13;  378, 4;  description  of, 
3  75,  4;  disappeared,  491,  2. 

iagen,  hunt,  chase;  strong  pret.,  VI.,  189. 

3a^r,  n.,  -e,  +year;  after  numerals,  175. 

3dcjer,  m.,  -,  hunter, 

je  +ever ;  coirj.  334  ;  before  cardinals  with 
distributive  force  =  "at  a  time";  je 
nac^cem  =  "that  depends"' ;  +ave. 

iefc(a),  every,  each,  infl.  of,  97  ;  '816, 1 ; 
445,  1 ;  in  comp.,  97  ;  pi.  of,  861,  3 ; 
+  either. 

jebee,  each,  168. 

jebnjeber,  every  one,  each,  97 ;  861,  3 ; 
445,2. 

ieglic^,  every, +  each,  97,  445, 1. 

Jemanb,  some  one,  97;  860;  445. 1. 

jen(er),  that,  +  yon.  90  ;  443, 1  ;  G.  sing, 
of,  816,  1;  use  of,  845,  846. 

jug,  see  jagen. 

jung+ young. 

3unge,  m.,i^.,boy;  n.,w.,  +  young  of  ani- 
mals. 

3ungfer,/.,  to.,  maiden  ;  eiym.,  516, 12,  a. 

3unrer,  young  nobleman,  +  younlter,  516, 
12.  a. 

Surce^,  n.,  -6,  -en,  +  jewel. 

jfingft,  lately;  etym.,  555,  2. 


A. 

I,  pronunc.  of,  14,  383,  1  ;  Eng.  corre- 
spondents of,  409,  3 ;  description  of, 
383,  1. 

fa^l,  bald,+callow;  compar.  of,  74. 

fiaii'er,  m.,  -,  emperor,  +  Cesar,  Czar. 

falt+cold,  etym.,  409,  3. 

fann,  see  tonnen. 

fannte,  see  tennen. 

Svir-,  in  comp.,  483,  3. 

.•ila^enfontain,  f.^X"-  -innen,  +  queen  of  cats. 

taum,  hardly;"  word-order,  330,  2. 

.taic  +  cheese,  46,3;  etym.,  488,5. 

ltd,  bold,  +  quick,  403,  Ex. 

fcifen,  fiff,  gcliffen,  +  scold  (like  an  old 
woman),  I.,  188, 1. 

fetn,  no,  none,  78  ;  95  ;  446,  2. 

-fcit,  noun-suffix,  515,  3;  fern,  gend.,  161, 
2;  430,  2. 

feniien,  fannte,  gefannt,  to  be  acquainted 
with,  119,  1  :  867,  1;  (fennte). 

.Qette,  /.,  ?^.,  + chain.  43.'>,  4. 

fiefen,  see  furen ;  bu  fieiejl  or  fiefl. 

ftinb,  n.,  -e^,  -er,  child,  60. 

.Viinblein,  n.,  -,  little  child. 

JUirf^e,  f.,w.,  +  cherry. 

flat  +  clear,  74. 


^Icincb,  w.,  -c,  a]?o  -ten  as  if  a  foreign 

word  ;  jewel,  511,  a. 
nteben,  tlob,   geflobcii,  split,  +  cleave,  II.. 

184,  2. 

flimmen,  Homm,  geflommen,  +  climb,  VIU., 
133.  D  '  ,  , 

Hiugen,  flang,  geftungen,  to  sound,  ring.  III., 

185,  1. 

Knabe,  m.,  w.,  boy,+knave,  413, 8. 
fnaiTcn,  creak. 

fneifen,  fniif,  gcfniffen,  pinch,  I.,  188,  1. 
tommen,  Um,  qefcmmei!,+  come,  IV.,  187  ; 

465;  489,  1 ;  umlaut  in  pres.,  18  7,  R.: 

+  past  part.,  396  ;  409,  3. 
fonnte,  see  tennen, 
Jftopf,  m.,  -e§,  -c,  head, 
foften+cost;    coustr.  with,   807,  1,  R, ; 

(fojleft,  foftet). 
^cntg,  w.,  -e.+kins, 
lonnen,  fennte,  gctcnnt,  +  can,  135,  3;  108. 

2;  867,  1. 
£raft,  /.,  -e,  strength,  +  craft ;  prep.,  303 

5,  6. 
f  reb'o,  m.,  -c,  +crayfish,  518, 
freifc^en,  frtjd),  gehtfc^en,  scream,  L,  133, 1. 
freipen,  see  freiic^en. 
htett)en,  frccft,  gefrof^cn,  4  creep,  crawl,  11., 

183,  2;  (freud^ii,  fteucb  are  archaic). 
Su^, /.,  ■-c,  +  cow,kine. 
funb  +  knowTi,  +  (un)couth  ;   constr.  with 

819. 
funnt  for  fonnte,  q.  v.;  in  347. 
fuven,  tox,  geloren,  +  choose,  II.,  134,  2; 

138  ;  411  ;  416.  1  ;  463  ;  (Cu  furft). 
Hilffen,  n.,  no /?/.,  + kissing. 


fi. 

I,  pronunc.  of,  15  ;  description  of,  381  ; 
385,  4. 

-t,  see  -cl. 

laben,  lub,  gclabeu,  +  load,  summon,  \T., 
139;  also  weak;  (tu  labft,  er  labt). 

la^m  +  lame,  74, 

Sanb,  «., +  land,  pi.  see  58. 

SanbCMnann,  m,,  /;^.  -leute,  fellow  country- 
man, 173. 

lang  +  lon^. 

Cangeicei'fe, /,,  ennui;  accent  483,1. 

laffen,  lie^,  gelaffen, +  let,  VQ.,  130. 1;  past 
part,  without  ge-,  108, 1;  constr.  after, 
199,  303,  1;  367,  7;  +  reflexive,  378  ; 
in  the  imper,,  387,  4;  -t  inf.,  390,2,  3, 
b ;  866,  4  ;  (tu  lafieft  or  lapt,  er  lafit). 

la%  weary,  74  ;   76,  2  ;  439,  2  ;  +  late. 

Ian,  tepid,  +  luke,  +  lew,  74. 

laufen,  lief,  gelaufen,  run,  VII,,  131 ;  318, 
1;  458,  2;  (bu  laufft). 

laut  +  loud  ;  etym.,  396;  415;  prep., 
308,  6. 

tauter,  nothing  but,  100. 

la^cln,  smile. 

langft,  long  ago,  555,  3. 

Icbcn  +  live. 

tcbe'nbtg  +  living ;  accent  480, 1. 

Icgen  +  lay.  535,  1.  a. 

Ic^ven,  teach  ;  instead  of  gele^rt,  108, 1 ; 


WORD-IKDEX    AND  GERMAN-EIS^GLISH   VOCABULARY.      279 


constr.  after,  199  ;  in  passive,  303,  2  ; 

+  inf.,  390,  2  ;   395. 
-lei,  533. 

8ci6,  m.,  -e§,  -er,  body, 
leiben,  Utt,  getitten,  suffer,  I.,  133, 1;  411; 

416,  1;  (Du  leiceft). 
Seiben,  n.,  -,  suffering, 
leiber,  unfortunately,  335,  2. 
leiben,  liet),  geliet)en,  +  lend,  I.,  133,2, 
-lein,  noun-suffix,  46,  1  ;  500,  2 ;   neut. 

gend.,  131  3  ;  493,  4. 
Ceitftem  +  lode-star,  530;4,  a. 
-ler,  noun-sufflx,  500,  4 ;  indicates  masc. 

gender,  161, 1. 
lernen  +  learn  ;  instead  of  geternt,  108,  1 ; 

for  le^ren,  199,2;  -i-inf„  390,2;  395. 
lefert,  laS,  getejen,  read,  V.,  138,  1  ;  395  ; 

(bu  lieieft  or  Ueft,  er  lieft,  Itee). 
le^crlid),  legible,  536,  3,  c 
let,  in  imperative,  387,  4, 
Ie|t-  +  last,  439,  2  ;  76,  2  ;  after  ordinals, 

533,  3. 
Seumunb,  m,,  no  pi.,  repute  ;  etym.y  396  ; 

494,  3, 
-leute,  in  comp.,  173. 
Ai6:)  +  -like,  +  -ly,  311;  535,4;  536,  3; 

adverbial  suffix,  554,  2. 
2i(ht,  ?^,,  + light,  pL  see  58. 
Keoen+Iove,  496. 

8tebe§6rtef,  m.,  -e,+ love-letter,  518,  3. 
Uegen,  lag,  getegen,  +  to  lie,  V.,  138,  2; 

457,  1  ;  II.,  133  ;    +inf.,  390,  3, 
-Itg,  536,  3,  c. 

-ling  +  -ling,  noun-suffix,    500,  3;   indi- 
cates masc.  gender,  161,  1. 
-lingen,  in  names  of  places,  500,  3,  a. 
-ling-5,  553. 
linf-,  left   (hand),  only  used  attributively 

like  adjectives  in  311. 
loben,  praise,  496. 
fiorber,  m.,  -i,  -(e)n,  + laurel, 
lore  +  Se^re,  395. 
?D§,  w.,  -eg,  -e, -i-lot. 
log  +  loose,  +  -less  in  adj.,  536,5. 
I6?(^en,  trans,  and  weak,  to  extinguish,  un- 
load ;   infrans.,  to  be  extinguished,  see 

erloic^en. 
Subtt)ig  + Louis +  Chlodwic,  396. 
gutter  +  Luther,  396. 
Suft, /.,  — e,  pleasure,  +  lusts. 
Ifigen,  log,  gelogen,  +lie,  II.,  134,  2 ;   133. 
Sijgen  [trafen,  to  give  the  lie,  199,  2. 


nt,  pronunc.  of,  16  ;  description  of,  388  ; 

Eng.  correspondents  of,  490,  4,  5, 
-m,  see  em. 
madjen  +  make,  +  inf.,  390,  3j  366,4;   bag 

(Ace.)  mac^t  =  the  reason  is  .  .  . 
mag,  see  mogen. 

9)2agb, /.,  —e,+ maid-servant,  513,  3. 
mager  +  meager,  71 ;  no  umlaut  in  compar., 

74. 
90?agi'fter,  m.,  -,+ master  (otarts). 
ma^len  + grind,  originally  of  VI.,  see  400  ; 

past  part,  gematjlen  still  common. 


'  9!)?atb  +  maid,  513,  3|  (poetic  form). 
DJJajeftat,  /.,  w.,  +  majesty, 
mal,  once,  probably  =  emmal,  41,  1;   In 

comp,,  531,  2. 
man,  one,  98. 
maitc^  +  manya,  100;  363  ;  635,1 ;  +ein, 

144. 
SDJann,  m.,  +  man;  pi.,  58,  59;  in  comp., 

173, 
DJJarfcb,  m,,  -e,  +  march ;  /.,  w.,  +  marsh, 

163,  4. 
mavfc^teren  +  march,  108,  4. 
Wlait,  m.,  -eg,  -en,  +  mast ;  /.,  w.,  fattening, 

stall-feeding, 
mapcn,  because,  337,  1, 
matt,  faint, +  mate  in  check-mate;  compar., 

74. 
aWaulrcurf,  m.,  M,  +  mole,  etym.,  400 ; 

494,  3. 
9KaU'3letn,  n.,  -,  little  +  mouse. 
aReer,  n.,  -e,  ocean,  +  mere, 
mc^c  +  more,  compar.  of,  76,  1 ;   100 ; 

439  ;  used  in  comparative,  334. 
me^rer-,  several,  76,  1 ;  100. 
mel)rft-, +most,  100. 
meiben,  mieb,  gemteCen,  avoid,  L,  133,  2; 

(meibeft). 
mein,  Q.  of  t(^,  see  metner  ;  metn-,  possess. 

pron.,  85 ;  in  mein  2;ag,  Ce&tag,  343,  1. 
moiner,  comparat.,  +  more  mine,  335,  2  ; 

G.  of  id),  86. 
meiuig-,  poss.  pron.,  +  mine,  S5. 
metft  +  most,  compar,  of,  76, 1;  100. 
ajjeipel,  m.,  -,  chisel, 
meiben,  announce,  (melbete). 
melJen,  molf,  gemolfen, +milk,  VIII.,  133; 

(bu  melfft  and  mtlfft,  melfe  and  milf), 
gO?elDbet,  /.,  w.,  +melody,  493,  2, 
SDJenjc^,  m.,  w,,  +  man  ;  n.,  see  59,  514. 
meffen,  ma^  gemeiien,  + measure,  V,,  138, 

1;  (bu  mifteft  or  mi^t,  er  mtpt), 
9D?e)fer,  n.,  -,  knife  ;  m., -,  measures  ;  see 

163,  3. 

g^ette,  /,,  w.,  +  matins,  435,  4, 

mt^  +  me.  Ace,  of  i^,  81. 

minber,  less,  comparison  of,  76, 1 ;  439  ; 

used  in  compar.,  334, 
mines,  in  comp,,  87. 
mir  +  me,  to  me,  D.  of  i(^,  81, 
mm-  +  mis-,  453,  1 ;  516,  8  ;  544. 
gwtife-,  see  90Ji^-. 
mit,  with,  303,  9. 

aKittaggftunbe,  /,,  w.,  hour  of  noon. 
mittel-  +  middle,  76,  2,  b. 
mittelfi,  see  mittel-,  prep.,  303,  7. 
3Kitterna(^t,  /.,  ^e,  + midnight,  519,  2. 
9)?ittiDD^,    m,,    also  /.,   w.,  Wednesday, 

164,  d. 

mm  <  m^>,  +Eng.  mb,  490,  4. 

33?o:^v,  m.,  w^  +  Moor. 

SWorb,  m.,  -ee!,  pi.  see  51. 

moric^,  rotten,  74, 

mouse  —  mice,  439, 1. 

mogcn,  modjte,  gemo(^t+may,  135,4;  108, 

2  ;  367,  3  ;  413,  2 ;  (ev  mag,  prei.  subj. 

me($te). 
iJKnnD,  m  ,  -eS,  -e,  older  -e,  +  mouth, 
DJJugfcl,  m,,  -n,  also/.,  w.,  + muscle. 


280      WORD-IN^DEX   AliTD   GERMAiq--E]^GLISH   VOCABULARY. 


-mut,  in  comp.,  164,  a;  +mood. 
abutter,  /.,  -,  +  mother  ;  see  Verner's  Law, 

411. 
SJZacfe,  /.,  M;,,+midge,  413,  4. 
ntufce,  tired, 
mfiffen,    mu^te,    gemu^t,  +  must,   135,  6 ; 

108,  2;  307,  3;  471,3;  (Cu  inu|t,  cr 


n,  pronunc.  of,  17;  nature  of,  386,  387, 

final  n  in  foreign  words,  386, 1,  Rem.; 

short  before  sonant  stops,  385,  4 ;  n  = 

q.,  i.  e.,  "  guttural  "  nasal.  386,  and  see 

nf,  ng ;   before  labial,   388,  1 ;   lost  in 

Eng.,  417,  1 ;  entered  the  N.  of  nouns 

of  the  n-decl.,  435,3;  loss  of,  435,3,4; 

503  ;  506,  1 ;  Eng.  correspondents  of, 

490,  5.    See  -en. 
nad),  after,  303,  10;  see  $u  and  gcgen. 
9?ai^6ar,  m.,  -%,  -n,  +  neighbor.  63,  1. 
nacfybem,  conj.^  after,  330,  2 ;  according  as, 

334. 
5Ka*t,  /.,  ^e,  + night,  53,  2;  439,  1, 
na^c  + near,  +  nigh,  73. 
5Warr,  m.,  w.,  +  foo\. 
9?otu'r,  /.,  w.,+nature. 
nac^ji  +  next,  73  ;  303,  11. 
-nb,  part.-sufflx,  505. 
'nefor  eine+a,  41, 1. 
neben,  by  the  side  of,  306,  6  ;  557. 
nebfi,  besides,   together  with,    303,   12; 

555,  2. 
needs,  553, 1. 
nc^men,  na^m,  genommcn,  take,  IV.,  13  7  ; 

SBunber  — ,  199, 1.  2 ;  (bu  nimmft,  nimm). 
-ne(nV  verb-suf.,  537,  1;  118, 1,  2. 
'nen  for  einen  +  ,  41, 1 
nennen,  119,  l ;  455  ;  constr.  with,  301 ; 

390,  2;  396,2;  303,  4. 
-ner,   noun-suf.,    503,   1 ;    masc.   gend., 

161,  1. 
neu+new. 

ng,  pronunc.  of,  17,  383, 1,  a ;  386, 1. 
ntc^t,  nic^tg,  +  not,  +nanght,  99  ;  199, 1,  2 ; 

309,  1 ;   position  of,  354  ;   in  compar. 

clauses,  333,  2  ;  490,  3  ;  after  verbs  of 

hindering,  309,  2. 
9?tc^tc,  /.,  M?.,  +  niece. 
ni($t!?  tccniger  al3,  auTthing  but . . .,  333, 

2,  a. 
nib  +  beneath,  551,  3. 
nicber-,  acO'.^+ nether,  76,  2. 
niemalS,  never. 

niemanb,  no  one,  97,  445, 1. 
-nla  +  -ness,  50 ;   indicates   neuter  and 
fem.  nouns,  161,2,  3;  438,6;   origin 

of,  503. 
nf,  pronunc.  of,  17;  386, 1. 
nc6el+ noble,  74. 
ncd^,  still ;  =  nor  with  correlative  webet ; 

noc^  ni^t,  not  yet,  354. 
9?orben,  wi.,  +North. 
gjoten,  old  D.  pi.,  439, 1. 
nun  +  now;  —  because,  337, 1. 
nut,  only;  +ba^,  336;  336,1. 


o. 

c,  pronunc.  of,  18  •  description  of,  370, 
1,  2  ;  in  ablauts,  VI.,  459,  4  ;  <  u,  405. 
489,  4  ;  <  a,  489,  3. 

0&,  prep, +  &ho\'e,  303,  8;  com.,  whether, 

335,  2  ;  although,  339. 
oBer-  in   comp.,  chief,   +  upper ;   accent, 

433,  7.  i-f     .  , 

o6cr-,  a<:(;.,  + upper,  76,2. 

o6gIei(^,  c&i't^on,  obiuc^I,  although,  339. 

SDbigesi  +  the  above,  146,  1. 

Ddj'S,  m.,  w.,  +OX,  63,  2. 

Dbem,  m.,  no  pi.,  breath,  see  3ltem. 

oe  as  sign  of  umlaut.  363,  2. 

Obnuuic^t,  fainting.  489,  3;  516,  10. 

o^ne,  without,  391,  1,  R.;  304,  5;  in 
comp.,  489, 3 ;  +  516, 10 ;  +  bap  =  with- 
out +  part,  clause,  333. 

D^nebcm,  without  that,  304,  5. 

SD^r,  w.,  -e^,  -en,  +  ear. 

on  +  an,  306,  2. 

once  +  einft,  555,  2,  a. 

-or,  noun-end.,  63,  2. 

SDrt,  m.,  pi.  see  57,  58. 

Often,  m.,  -o,  no  /?^.,  +  east. 

ou,  Eng.  —  G.  au,  488, 5. 

D-umlaut,  see  5. 

c,  pronunc.  of,  31  ;  description  of,  370, 
3,  4  ;  0  —  e   489,  1 ;  <  u,  489,  4. 


p,  pronunc.  of,  19 ;   description  of,  386, 

1;    Eng.    correspondents    of,  413,    3; 

414,  2,  a;  493,3. 
^ala'ft,  m.,  pi.  gJalape,   J  63,  1  ;   493,  1 ; 

494. 
^Pantoffel,  m.,  —3,  -n,  slipper. 
pf,  pronunc.  of,  19  ;   description  of,  389, 

1 ;    Eng.    correspondents    of,    409.    2 ; 

414,  2. 
^fiilj'/-,  w.,  castle,  +  Palatinate. 
5ptau/  ni.,  w.,  +peacock.  414,  2. 
pfeifen,  pftff,  gepfiffen,  whistle,  L,  133, 1. 
^ferb,  n.,  -e§,  -c,  horse,  +  palfrey, 
pflegen,    pftog,    gevflogen,  carry  on,  VIII., 

133  ;   469  ;   (bu  pflegft,  pflege) ;  always 

weak  =  to  cherish, 
ipfunb,  w.,  -c^,  -e,  +  pound ;  after  numerals, 

175. 
pB,  pronunc.  of,  19. 
platt,  flat,  74. 

plump,  awkward,  +plump.  74. 
prctfen,  prte^,  geprtefen,  +  praise,  I.,  133,  2  ; 

(bu  pretjcfl,  er  preip). 
^rinv  m.,  ?^.,  +  prince  (of  a  royal  family), 
probiercn,  try,  108,  4. 
pufeen,    dress    up,    burnish,    (bu   pufeefl), 

118,4. 

c. 

q,  pronunc,  of,  30 ;  409,  3 ;  as  symbol, 

see  n  and  386. 
queUen,  quoU,  gequotten,  to  gush  forth,  well 


WOED-IKDEX  AKD   GERMAN-EN^GLISH  VOCABULAEY.      281 


up,  (quiflfi:,  quiUt,  quitt;  also  weak  quels 
left,  quelle). 
gueman,  see  tommen. 


1». 

r,  pronunc.  of,  81;  391,  3;  description  of, 
374,8;  377;  <  8,411,416. 

9iabe,  crow, +  raveii,  413,  3;  435,  3;  508. 

3Jab,  n.,  -e^,  "  er,  wheel,  56. 

OJanb,  m.,  -e§,  —ex,  edge,  brim. 

raid),  quick,  +  rash,  74. 

raicn,  rage,  118,  4;  (in,  er  raft). 

diat,  m.,  -e-S,  pi.  see  173. 

raten,  rtet,  geraten,  advise,  VIL,  130, 1;  (bu 
ratft,  er  rat). 

SJiatfd^Iag,  ratfc^tagcn,  advice,  to  advise, 
137,  1. 

rau^-,  rau:^,  + rough,  490,  3,  b. 

radjen,  xa6:)te,  gerddjt  or  gerodjen,  +  wreak 
veugeance,  VIII.,  133;  generally  weak; 
(bu  rdd)i't). 

DJatfel,  n.,  -,+ riddle. 

rec^t,+ right. 

dkdjt,  n.,  -c,  +  right,  pi.  jurisprudence ; 
331,  4,  a. 

rec^neit,  +  reckon,  118,2;  537,1;  (vect); 
nete). 

reben,  to  speak  (rebete),  118  ;  53  7, 1. 

regnen  +  ram,  118,  2;  537, 1;  (regnete). 

reiben,  vieb,  geriebeu,  rub,+rive,  I.,  133,  2. 

rei^  +  rich. 

5Tiei(^,  w.,  -e,  empire. 

-reid)  +  -rich,  4-  ric,  515,  3,  a. 

iJJei'(i^-3fvci()eit,  /.,  w.,+ freedom  of  the  em- 
pire, immediate  dependence  upon  the 
empire. 

$)Jei(f)tum,  m.,  -er,  wealth. 

rei^en,  rip,  geriften,  tear,  I.,  133,  1  ;  (bu 
retpeft  or  veipt,  +  write). 

reifen,  travel,  118  ;  (bu  reifcft  or  reift). 

retten,  ritt,  gerttten, +  ride,  I.,  133, 1;  +fpa5 
jiereu,  ride  for  pleasure,  390  ;  (bu  veiteft, 
er  rettet). 

rennen,  rannte,  gerannt,  rush,  +  run,  119, 1. 

retteu,  save  (rettete). 

-rid),  +  -ric,  515,  3. 

ried)en,  ro(^,  gero(^en,  smell,  II.,  134,  1. 

ringen,  rang,  gerungen,  wrestle,  +  wring.  III., 
135,  1 ;  ringen,  umringen,  etc.,  are  of  dif- 
ferent origin  and  weak,  though  umruu; 
gen,  surrounded,  is  not  uncommon. 

itnnen,  rann,  geronnen,  drip.  III,  135,  2; 
457,2  ;  ronn,  ronne  also  occur. 

Diitter,  m.,  -,  knight. 

9io(f,  m.,  — e,  coat. 

rol^  +  raw,  74;  415,3. 

SRo^r,  n.,  -e,  reed,  55. 

ret  +  red. 

ato^re,  /.,  w.,  pipe. 

9?D§Iein,  w.,  -,  little  rose. 

rufen,  rief,  gerufen,  call,  VIT.,  131;  constr. 
after,  196  ;  (bu  vufft,  in  classics  some- 
times rufte). 

runb  + round. 

aiiiifen,  w.,  -,  +  ridge,  413, 4. 


f,  6,  pronunc.  of,  33-34;  391,  4;  descrip- 
tion of,  378,  1,  2,  3  ;  m  G.  sg.  of  m.  and 
n.  nouns,  43  ;  of/,  nouns,  66,  518,  3 ; 
in  G.  s.  of  Eng.  adverbs  (needs),  553, 1 ; 
in  the  pi.,  60  ;  67  ;  in  composition  with 
poss.  pron.,  87  ;  in  compound  nouns, 
518,  2,  3. 

ff  <  ft,  413,  2;  f  in  Verner's  Law,  411, 
416  ;  Eng.  correspondents  of,  414,  1 ; 
417,5;  490,2. 

-§,  noun-sufHx,  513  ;  in  adverbs,  553. 

'§  for  ta^,  41  ;  for  e§,  q.  v. 

©ac^fe,  m.,  «;.,  +  Saxon. 

fa(^t,  gently,  +  softly,  417, 1 ;  mostly  ad- 
verb. 

'Bad,  m.,  — e, +  8ack. 

fagen  +  say. 

-fal,  noun-suffix,  50,  51 ;  500,  1 ;  nouns 
of  doubtful  gender,  161,2,3. 

-fam  -I-  -some,  536,  4. 

famt,  with,  303, 13. 

©aine(n),  m.,  +  seed  ;  infl.,  46,  4. 

fanft  +  soft,  gentle,  74  ;  417,  1. 

fatt  +  satisfied  (  +  sad),  74. 

<Ba^,  m.,  -e§,  -e,  sentence. 

faufen,  foff,  gefoffen,  drink  (of  animals),  II., 
134,1;  463;  (bu  fdufft, +sup  and  +  sip). 

faugcn,  fog,  gefogen,  +  suck,  II.,  134,  2;  (bu 
faugft,  not  fdugft  <  fdugen). 

©aug  unb  23rau8  (uninflec),  revel  and  riot. 

©dbel,  m.,  -,  + sabre. 

©anger,  m.,  -,  +  singer. 

©aule,  /.,  w.,  column,  430, 1. 

fc^,  pronunc.  of,  33;  description  of,  378, 
3;  389,4;  Eng.  correspondents  of,  413, 
1;  490,  1;  origin  of,  490,  1  ;  514. 

-f(^,  514  ;  see  -if^. 

©(^obe(n),  m.,  harm,  damage,  46, 4 ;  48, 1, 

f(^affen,  fd)uf,  gefd)affen,  to  create,  +  shape, 
VI.,  139 ;  (bu  f^affft,  weak  =  work, 
procure). 

-fd)aft  +  -ship,  515,  4;  fern,  gender,  161, 
2 ;  430,  2. 

fd)aUen,  f^oU,  gefci^offett,  to  sound,  generally 
weak,  133;  (bu  f^aUft). 

Sc^ar,  /.,  w'.,  troop,  host. 

fd^auen,  to  look. 

-f(^e,  suffix  of  surnames,  514,  a. 

ft^eibcn,  fd)ieb,  gef(^teben,  to  separate,  de- 
part, I.,  133,  2  ;  VII.,  131 ;  (bu  f*etbeft, 
ev  fd^eibet). 

ffi^einen,  f(^tcn,  gef(^ienen,  +  shine,  seem,  I., 

133,  2. 

f(^ei^en,  fd)i^,  gcfd^iffen,  cacare,  I.,  133, 1. 
fcbellen,  fd)oU,  gefd)Dnen,  to  ring  (the  bell), 

VIII.,    133  ;    (bu  fc^iUft,    f^iU  are  very 

rare,  also  weak), 
fc^elten,  fd)alt,  gefc^otten,  + scold,  in.,  135,3; 

491, 2  ;  (bu  fd)Utft,  er  f^Ut,  fc^iU  or  fc^elte, 

fc^olte). 
-f(^en,  suf.  in  verbs,  539,  3.    .^^ 
fd^eren,  fd^or,  gefc^oren,  +  shear,  Vlll.,  133  ; 

(bu  f(^terft,  fc^ier,  also  weak. 
fd)euen,  avoid  ;  refl.,  to  fear, 
fc^ieben,  fc^ob,  gefd)oben,  push,  +  shove,  11^ 

134,  2. 


282      WORD-I^^DEX   AND   GERMAN-EKGLISH   VOCABULARY. 


filler,  adj.,  brilliant,  pure ;   adv.,  almost, 

(quick,  comp.  bold  +  balD). 
jc^iepen,  fc^ou,  ^cicl)c)je.i,  +  shoot,  II.,  124, 

1 ;  (bu  I'c^iepeft  or  idjie^t). 
St^ilb,  n.  and  m.,  + shield,  see  58;  162, 4. 
J^inten,  fc^unb  (jdjanb),  gei^unbcn,  to  skin, 

ni.,  125,1;  (bu  fc^inbeft). 
fc^lafeu,  ic^Uef,  gej^lafen,+ sleep,  VII.,  130, 

1 ;  pres.  part.,  294,  1 ;  (bu  fcJ^lafft). 
f^Iaff,  slack,  74. 
fd^lagen,  fdjlug,  gej^Iagen,  strike,  +  slay, VI., 

129;  recipr.,= to  fight;  (bu  fc^lagft). 
fd?lant  slender,  74. 

t*lci(^e  11,  id)li(^,  gei(^lic^en,  to  sneak,I.,  1 2  2, 1 . 
f^leifen,    fc^Iiff,   gefc^Iiffen,    to    sharpen  by- 
grinding.  L,  122,  1  ;  weak=  to  raze. 
fd>lei^en,  jc^lip,  gef^Itffen,  wear  off,  +  slit, 

I.,  122, 1 ;  (bu  fc^lei^efl  or  i*Iei^t). 
f^ttefen,  Wc%  gefc^loffen,  to  slip,  n.,  124, 

2  ;  (bu  fd^Ieufl't,  i(!^Ieuf  very  rare). 
yd}liepen,  fc^lop,  ge?(!^Ioffen,  close,  conclude, 

II.,  124, 2 ;  (bu  f^Iiepeft  or  jc^lie^t,  jd^lcupt 

etc.,  rare). 
W)UnDen,  see  f(^Itngen. 
fd^Ungen,    fc^lang,     gef(^Iungcn,    to    twine, 

+  sling,  devour.  III.,  125,  1. 
®*Ui(f,  m.,  -€,  swallow ;  pi.,  51. 
fcblilrfen  +  slip  <  idjliefen  according  to  535, 

1,  R.  2. 
gc^mac^, /.,  nojjl.,  disgrace,  490,  3,  b. 
^djmaftten,  to  pine  0'(t?"i<i'iKete). 
i^mei^eln,  flatter,  536j  2,  Ex. 
idjmeipen,  fct^iuip,  gef^miifen,  throw,  +  smite, 

1.,  122, 1 ;  (cu  fc^mei^cft  or  ^d^mei^t). 
jc^meUeii,  jd^inclj,  gefc^moljcn,+melt.  VIII., 

133;  (du  i*iniljfl  or  j^mtljt,  er  ^^mUjt, 

trans,  is  weak). 
S(^merj,  w.,  -cs,  -en,  pain,  +  smart,  63. 
f(^nau6en,    fdjiicO,    geicf>noben,    snort,    puff, 

+  snuff,    II.,    124,  2,  also   weak;   (Cu 

f*naubft). 
£d^neenjitt(^cn,  + Snow-white  (witt  is  L.  G. 

for  roeiB). 
fc^neiben,  (^nitt,  ge)(^nttten,+  cut,  I.,  122, 1; 

416,  462  ;  (bu  fdjueibeft). 
f(^nicben,  see  fi^naubcn. 
finigcn,  carve,  535, 1,  B.  2. 
fcpen,  already,    339 ;    position  of,   354  ; 

form  of,  554. 
i(^6n,  beautiful,  522. 
fc^rauben,   ft^rob,  gefc^robcn,  +  screw,    IL, 

124,  2;  (bu  fc^raubft) ;  also  weak, 
ft^recfen,  ic^ral,  gei'c^rocfen,  to  be  frightened, 

see  crid^rerfen. 
e^recf(en),  m.,  fright  ;  infl.,  46,  4. 
yt^reiben,  fd>rieb,  gefd^rieben,  write,  I.,  122, 2. 
fc^reien,  f^rie,  gef^rieen,  cry,  +  scream,  1., 

122,  2. 
fAreiten,  fc^ritt,  gef(^ntten,  to  stride,  walk, 

I.,  122, 1 ;  (bu  fd»retteft,  er  jc^rettet). 
<Sd)rttt,  m.,    -c§,    -c,    stride,    step ;    after 

numerals,  175. 
fdireff,  rugged,  imcouth,  74. 
fc^ireigen,  ic^nj'ej,  ge^c^iuiegen,  to  be  silent, 

I.,  122,2 
Sd^njetn,  n.,  -a,  pig,  +  sow,  +  swine,  502.  2. 
{(^weOcn,  f^iBpU,  geid^irc(Ien,+6well,  VIII., 

133  ;  (bu  fc^aiUft,  j(%u)itt). 


f^irinben,  fi^wcnb,  geidjmunben,  disappear, 

III,,  125,  1;   (bu  i^ioinbeft,  jc^itanbe  — 

fdnuunbc). 
fd^iuingeu,    fd^itang,    gefc^iuungcn,  +   swing, 

III.,  125,  1 ;  (id)a'dnge  and  i*ivuiige). 
icbaMimnen,  idtrcamni,  geid;u3cninien,  +  s\\im. 

III.,    125,    2  ;    464  ;     (id)ir6mnie    and 

fc^irammc). 
fd)icoren,    ^c^icur  and   jAwcr,  geidjircren,  + 

swear,  VI.,  129  ;   VIlI.,  132  ;   457,  1  ; 

(bu  i(^ujCnft). 
Se.  <  ©eiiie,  His,  311,2. 
®ee,  m.,  -§>,  -en,  lake  ;  /.,  w;.,  +  sea,  63. 
fel^en,  jab,  gcfeben,  +  see,V.,  1 28, 1 ;  instead 

of  geiebcn,  108,  1 ;  +inf.,  290,  3;  410, 

.3;  411,  Ex.;  (bu  fiebft.  fieb). 
fein,  G.  s.  of  er,  ec^ :  see  feiner. 
jein,  his,  its,  85  ;  not  referring  to  subject, 

242,1;    24  3,2;   referring  to  indefinite 

subj.,  98 ;    seemingly  for  i^r  in  „ictucr 

3e;t,"  343,  2. 
fein,  to  be,  1 10  ;  473,  l ;  in  comp.  tenses, 

266,  283,1-3;  in  passive,  273  ;  +inf., 

290,  3.  a  ;   +past  part.,  296,  2  ;  +pres. 

part.,  2  74,  6. 
feiner,  G.  s.  of  er,  e§,  of  him,  of  it,  81. 
feit+ since,  jtrep.,  303,  14;  -i-since,  coni., 

330,  2. 
feitbem,  see  feit. 

feitcn-5,  on  the  part  of,  prep.,  302. 
-jeito,  in  comp.  with  poss.  pron..  87,  552. 
-jel,  noun-suf.,  46,  1;    500,  1;    mostly 

neut.  gend.,  16. 13. 
fclb-,  jelbcr,  +  self ,  91,  2;  before  numerals, 

229,  1  ;    530  ;   strengthens  refl.  pron., 

237,2  ;  use  of,  249. 
fclbanber,  two  of  them,  of  us  (according  to 

the  person  of  the  verb),  229,  1. 
felbig-,  same,  248,  2. 
ielbft,  see  felb-. 
-felig,  adj.-suf.,  528,  2,  a. 
-fen  +  -se,  verb-suf ,  539,  1. 
fenben,  fanbtc,  .^efanbt, +  send,  119,1;  455, 

1;  pret.  subj.,  fenbete. 
fenJen,  fentte,  gefenft,  trans.,  +  sink,  635, 

1,  a. 
©effel,  m.  -,  (easy,  large)  chair, 
©euc^e,  /.,  w.,  epidemic  disease,  396. 
sh  — fd?,  490,  1,  d. 
shall -i-fptten,  266,5;  in  fut.,  266, 6 ;  279, 

3;  283,4. 
ficb-  A.  and  D  ,  sing,  and  pi.  of  refl.  pron., 

him-  and  herself,  themselves,   83;   re- 
ciprocal pron.,  84.  each,  one  another  ; 

supplants  pers.  pron.,  237,1;   243,3, 

R.j  position  of,  352,  e. 
fie,  N.  and  A.,  fem.  smg.,  and  pi.  of  all  gen- 
ders, +  she,  her,  they,  them,  81. 
©ie,  yon  in  address,  230,  2;  233. 
fied),  infirm,  +  sickly,  396. 
fieben,  fptt,  gcfotten,  boil,  +  seethe,  IT.,  124, 

1;    416,    1;    463;  (bu   fiebeft) ;   flgur. 

weak. 
i£in-,  in  comp.,  494,  3. 
fmgen,  fang,  gcfungen,  ■»•  sing.  III.,  125,  1. 
ftnten,  fanf,  gefunfen, +  pink.  III.,  125,  1. 
Sinn  iinb  SSevftanb  —  all  reason,  lit.  sense 

and  reason. 


WORD-IN^DEX   AKD  aERMAN-EN"GLISH  VOCABULARY.      283 


Itnnen,  fann,  gefonnen,  meditate,  III.,  125, 

2 ;  (f&nne  and  ^onne), 
ftnt  + since,  prep.^  303,  14. 
fintemal,  because,  337,  1. 
fi^en,  fa^,  gefeifen,  +8it,  V.,  138,  2 ;  457, 1; 

[bu  ri&eft,  ev  ft^t,  ftfe(e)].  ,  ,  ^     , 

fo+so;  in  main  clauses  preceded  by  de- 
pend, claus.,    339  ;    333 ;   330,  3,    a ; 

348,  2;   in  consecutive  clauses,  335; 

in  compar.  clauses,  333,  3  ;  in  conces- 
sive cl.,  339;  relativeadv.,  357;  =t»eun, 

340;  +ein,  350,2. 
©obn,  w.,— c, +son,  405. 
fol(i^  +  such,  91,  3;  443, 1 ;  force  of,  350; 

+  ein,  91,  3;  144;  157;  333,3. 
yofern,  conj.,+m  so  far  as,  340. 
©olba't,  m,,  w.,  +  soldier, 
fotten,  jollte,  gejollt,  +  shall,  ought,  135,  5; 

108,  2;   471,  2,  4;   force  of,  367,  5; 

379,3;  383,2,5. 
jonber,  without,  304,  6 ;  489,  4. 
fonbern,  but,  330,  2,  R.;  word-order  after, 

343,  c. 
fonft,  at  other  times,  330  ;  551,  3. 
fp,  pronunc.  of,   34;    378,  3;    389,  4; 

391,  1 ;  Eng.  correspondents  of,  413, 1. 
©pa^,  m.,  -e§,  -e,  joke,  fun. 
fpa^en,  to  joke,  118,  2;  (ipa^eft,  jpa^e). 
fpat,  adv.,  late,  300,  1 ;  554.  1. 
©paten,  w.,  -,  +  spade. 
©pa^,  w.,  w.,  also  -i%,  -e, -1- sparrow, 
fpajieien,  walk  about,  with  verbs  of  motion, 

390,  2. 
fpS^en  +  spy,  494,  1. 
fpat,  late,  see  also  jpat. 
fpeten,  fpte,  gefpieen,  +  spit,  +  spew,  I., 

133,  2. 
©peife,  /.,  w.,  food. 
fpinnen,  fpaitn,  geiponnen,  +  spin,  in.,  135, 

2;  (fpinne  and  fponne). 
©pion,  m.,  -e,  +  spy,  494,  1. 
fpXei^en,  ipUp,  gefpltifeu,  +  split,  I,  133, 1  ; 

(bu  fptei^eft  or  fpletpt,  ec  fptei^t). 
©porn,  m.,  +  8pur,  for  infl.  see  63,  1. 
fprec^en,   fpra(^,    geiprod^en,  +  speak,   IV., 

137  ;   (bu  fpric^ft,  fpric^  ;  with  A.,  to  see, 

in  §  66. 
fpne|en,  fpro^,  gefproffen, -^ sprout,  II.,  134, 

1 ;  (bu  fprie^eft  or  fprie|t,  er  fpriept ;  old, 

fpreu^t,  fpreu^). 
fpringen,  fprang,  gefDrungen,  +  spring,  run, 

m.,  135, 1 ;  (fpringe). 
©prop,  m.,  -ffeS,  -ffe,-(- sprout,  scion, 
ft,  pronunc.  of,  34  ;  378,  3  ;  389,4;  391, 

1 ;  Eng.  correspondents  of,  413. 
-ft,  super!,  suffix,  73;  438,  1;  in  ordinals, 

80  ;  530  ;  in  nouns,  513,  3. 
©taat,  wi.,  -e6,  -en, -i- state,  government, 
©tac^el,  m.,  -,  sting. 

©tabt, /.,  ^,  city,  430, 1,  a;  490,  1,  h. 
©tamm,  m.,  ■^,  +  stem. 
ftarr,  stifE,+ staring,  74. 
ftatt  +  instead  of,  303,  1 ;  490,  1,  h. 
©tatt,  f.,nopl.,  place,  -i-  stead,  see  ©tabt. 
©tatte,  /.,  w.,  spot,  see  above, 
ftei^en,  fta*,  ge[to(^en,  sting,  puncture,  + 
stick,  iV.,  137;   457,2;   465,1;  (bu 


fterfcn  +  to  stick  (not  ftaf,  but  weak). 
ftet)en,  ftanb  (ftunb),  geftanben,+ stand,  139; 

136,  2;  457,2;  475  ;  (cu  fte^ft,  fte^e,  idj 

ftunbe  or  ftanbe). 
ftet)leu,  fta^t,   gefto^ten, -h  steal,  IV.,  137; 

398  ;  465 ;  (Du  ftie^lft,  ftte^l  or  fteMe, 

fto^le  or  fta^le). 
fteigen,  ftieg,  gefttegen,  to  ascend,  mount,  L, 

133,  2. 
©tcin,  wi., -e,  + stone, 
©teinmeg,  m.,  w.,  also  strong,  stone-cutter, 
ftetnreic^ -1- stony,  very  rich,  433,  4. 
fterben,  ftarb,  geftovben,  -h  to  die,  IV.,  135, 3; 

(-H  starve,  fttrbft,  fturbe,  rarely  ftavbe). 
fiieben,  ftob,  geftobcn,  fly,  scatter  like  dust, 

I.,  134,  2  ;  (bu  ftiebit,  older  fteubft). 
©ttft,  gender  and  meaning  see  58. 
ftinfen,  ftanf,  aeftunfen,  +  6tink.  III.,  135,1; 

(ftanfe,  rarely  ftiinfe). 
fiolj,  proud,  74. 
fto^en,  ftic^,   gefto^en,  push,  thrust,  VII., 

131 ;  458,  2 ;  (bu  fto^t,  er  fto^t). 
flraff,  stretched,  tight,  74. 
©trauc^,  m.,  — e  and  -er,  shrub, 
ftreden  -i-  stretch,  in  §  79  to  die. 
ftreic^en,   ftric!^,    geftrid)cn,  +  strike   out,  + 

stroke,  I.,  133, 1. 
ftreiten,  ftritt,  geftntten,  contend,  I.,  133,1 ; 

(bu  ftreiteft)  \  "strong,"  438,  3. 
©tube,/.,  sitting-room  (  + stove), 
©tul^t,  m.,  — e.  chair,  +  stool,  throne, 
ftunb,  pret.  of  ftef)en,  q.  v. 
-ftunb  in  comp.,  531,  2. 
©tute,  mare, -f  stud,  430, 1. 
ftufeen,  be  startled,  clip,  <  same  root  as 

fto^en  ;  see  535  ;  bu  ftufeeft,  118,  2. 
fu^en  +  seek,  454,  3. 
©U(|t,  /.,  w.,  passion,  mania,  396  ;  orig.^ 

lingering  disease ;  +  sick. 
-fiti^ttg  in  comp.,  538,  2,  b. 
©ilben,  m.,  -§,+ south, 
©anbflut,  /.,  w..  Deluge,  494,  3. 
fa|  +  sweet. 
%,  pronunc.  of,  33,  35- 


t,  pronunc.  of,  25  ;  see  t^  ;  Eng.  corre- 
spondents of,  408.  1  ;  413  :  413,  1 ; 
414,  1 ;  description  of,  384,  1 ;  in  j, 
389,  3,  4  ;  excrescent,  87  ;  89  ;  93, 1 ; 
491,2;  513,2,3;  stops  into  spirants 
before,  413  ;  tr,  414,  1. 

-t,  noun-sufBx,  513  ;  fem.  gend.,  161,  2 ; 
163,5. 

-t,  in  the  participle  of  weak  verbs, 
453. 

-t,  2.  pers.   eg.   in  pret.-pre8.  verbs, 
470,  2. 

Stafel, /.,«;.,  formal  meal ;  bet  — ,  at  -h  table. 

Sag,  m.,  -e,  +  day. 

taugen,  to  be  fit,  +  do,  471,  5. 

2:aufenb,  w.,  -e,  +  thousand,  336. 

tch,  G.  correspondents  of,  414,  3. 

-te,  suf.  in  ordinals,  80,  530. 

-te,  in  pret.,  117  ;  454,  1. 

tetI6,  in  part ;  in  comp.  with  poss.  pron.,  8  7. 


284 


WORD-INDEX   Aiq-D   GERMAK--E:N-GLISH   VOCABULARY. 


"M,  in  comp.,  532,  2. 

-ter,  uoun-suf.,  508. 

teta,  see  t^at. 

Teutones,  493,  3, 

tt},  pronunc.  of,  35  ;  origin  of,  363,  3 : 

384,  1. 
t^at  +  did,  3  74,  6  ;  390  ;  476,  2. 
St^or,  gend.  and  meaning,  163,  4 ;  408, 1. 
Stbrane,  tear,  430, 1. 
Stpron,  m.,  -e  and  -en,  +  throne,  63, 1. 
t^un,  t^at,  getf)an,  +  do,  136,  3;  454,  l; 
476;   as   an  auxil.,    374,  6:    394,  ]: 
(t^ate). 
2Mr,  /.,  w.,  +  door,  408,  1 ;  430, 1. 
Slpurd^en,  n.,  -,  little  door. 
SEier,  w.,  -c,  animal  (deer). 
2;tjd),  m.,  -c,  table  C  +  disk,  +di8h). 
a:od)tei-,/.,  -,  +  daughter,  46,  48,  408,  1. 
SEdD,  m., -e§,  pi.  of,  173. 
ton,  mad,  +  dull,  74. 
tvagen,  trug,  getragen,  carry,  VI.,  139;  (bu 

trdvift). 
SEranf,  m..  —c,  + drink, 
trauen  (with  D.),  to  trust, 
treffcn,   trof,   getroffen,  hit,  IV.,  137;   (bii 

triffft,  trijj). 
tretfeen,  trieb,  getrie6cn,  + drive,  I.,  133,  2. 
treten,  trat,  getreten,  +  tread,  step,  V.,  138, 

1 ;  (bu  trittft,  er  tritt,  tritt  or  trete). 
triefen,  troff,  getroffen,  +  to  drip,  drop,  II., 
134, 1 ;  463  ;  (bu  triefft,  rarely  trouift)- 
triegen,  see  trilgen. 
trinfen,  tranf,  getrunfen,  + drink.  III.,  135, 

1 ;  (tranfe,  older  triinle). 
trocfen -I- dry,  534,  4. 
a:ropf(en)  m.,  -, +  drop,  46,  4. 
Stropf,  m.,  -e,   fool,    orig.  "struck  with 

paralysis." 
tro^,  in  defiance,  in  spite  of,  303,  9. 
troften,  to  comfort,  535, 1,  a  ;  (troftete). 
-trunlen,  intoxicated,  538. 
SrilSfal,  /.,  -e,  sorrow. 
Slrilmmer,  a  pi.,  ruins,  59. 
trugen,  trog,  getrogen,  to  cheat,  II.,  134,  2: 
133  ;  (bu  tragft,  older  trcugft) 


unfcr,  poss.  pron.,  +  our,  85. 

unfrer,  for  unjer,  83. 

unter-,  a«?/.,  lower,  +  under,  76,  2. 

unter,  prerp.,  +  under,  306,  8, 10 ;  in  comp. 
verbs,  549,  5. 

Unterf^ieb,  m.,  -e^,  -c,  difference,  458,  3. 

Untcrtl)an,  m.,  w.,  subject  (of  a  ruler),  63, 1. 

Ur-  +  or-,  516,  9.  ^'       '  ^ 

Ura^ne,  great  grandmother  in  §  143. 

ur6ar,  arable,  536,  1. 

a,  pronunc.  of,  31  ;  sign  of  umlaut,  363, 
2  ;  368,  4  ;  description  of,  367  :  368, 
3,  4 ;  <  tie,  488,  4  ;  ii  —  i,  489,  2. 

u6er  +  over,  306,7:  in  comp.  verbs,  549,  3. 

u'fcerfa^ren,  to  cross. 

aSer^au'pt,  in  general,  433  ;  553,  3. 


»,  pronunc.  of,  37;   380,  1,  2;   see   f; 

415,1.  ' 

3Sater,  m.,  -,  +  father,  46,  48,  2  ;   411  ; 

478.4. 
aSaterlanb,  w.,  -eg,  -e,  +  fatherland. 
Bcr-  +  for-,  516, 11 ;  545  ;  in  certain  par- 
ticiples, 395,  2  ;  545,  R. 
t>crber6en,  werbarfe,  uerborben,  to  spoil  (intr.), 

ni.,  135,3;  (bu  Berbtrbft,  uerbirb,  tcrbiirbe, 

rarely  terbdrbe). 
SSevbicnft,  gend.  and  meaning,  163,  3. 
tjevbient,  deserving,  meritorious,  395,  2. 
verbrte^en,  t?crbvo^,   ucrbroffen,  to  vex,  II,, 

134,  1 ;  (bu   tjcrbric^eft  or  terbrte^t,  old 

»erbreu^t). 
Bergeffcn,  »erga^,  ucrgeffcn,  +  to  forget,  V., 

138,  1 ;  past  part,  in  comp.,  395,  2,  a  ; 

(bu  Bergtyfefl  or  tergi^t,  cr  tergi^t,  uergi^). 
»cr^aUnt|mi^ig,  comparatively. 
t5ertauten,  to  sell. 
»erlaffen,  to  forsake,  see  laffen. 
»erlegen,  embarrassed,  past  part.,  396,  2,  a; 

534,  4. 
tjerlevnen,  to  forget  how  to  .  .  .,  + unlearn, 
werlieren,  »erIor,  terloren, +  lose,  II.,  134,2; 

416. 


SEu^,  n.,  -€§,  -er,  cloth,  shawl,  58,  85. 

-turn,  +  -dom,  57,  4;  mostly  neut.  gend.,  i  Bermoge,  by  virtue  of,  303,  11. 

161,  3;  origin  of,  501;  515,  5.  ,  - 

%,  pronunc  of,  389,  3  ;   414,  1 ;   %  —  i,\, 

635, 3,  JS.  2;  see  J. 


u. 

u,  pronunc.  of,  36  ;  description  of,  368, 1, 
2 ;  <  uo,  488,  4  ;  u  —  D,  405  ;  +nascUi3 
and  liquida  sonans,  4.59,  3,  a. 

«e,  as  si^n  of  umlaut,  363,  2. 

urn  +JU,  m  order  to,  391, 1,  4,  R. ;  335, 1 ; 
338,  1 ;  304,  7 ;  in  comp.  verbs,  549, 
4;  +fD,  334. 

umrungen,  surrounded,  see  ringcn. 

un-  +  -un,  accent,  433,  6  ;  516, 10. 

unb  +  and,  319;  +inversion,  339,  1. 

-ung  +  -ing,  506,  2;  gend.,  161,  2. 

un§,  D.  and  A.  of  voiv,  +  us,  to  us,  81  ;  also 
refl.,  83  ;  and  reciprocal  pron.,  84. 

unjer,  G.  of  wiv,  81. 


Beranrren,  to  confuse,  strongpastpart.,  Bers 
ttJDrren=complicated,  VIIL,  133. 


33etter,  m.,  w.  or  mixed  decl.,  cousin,  63, 1. 
9Ste^,  n.,  -e«,  -e,  cattle  (  +  fee),  410,  3. 
Biel,  much,  compar.  of,  76, 1  ;  100  ;  199, 

1,  2;   363. 
vixen  +  JVuc^fin,  504. 
Bott-  +  full,  74,  549,  6. 
Boffer  +  full,  319,  1. 
BoUfommen,  perfect,  431, 1. 
iBoIf,  n.,  -er,  people,  +  folk. 
iBo'If^et^moIogteV  folk-etymology,  494,  2. 
Bom  <  Bon  bem,  from  the,  40. 
Bon,  from,  by,  303, 15;  compar.  with  burc^, 

369;  304,2;  306,7,  i?.;  +  f elbft,  of . . . 

self,  349,  2. 
Bor  +  before,  in  point  of,  306,  9  ;  516,  6 ; 

compar.  with  fitr,  304,  3. 
Borau'siBerfuubtgen,  announce  beforehand, 

546,  2. 
Berber-,  the  front  one,  76,  2  (short  o). 


WUED-I^DEX  AisTD   GERMAN-EN'GLISH  VOCABULARY. 


J85 


SSorfa^r,  m.,  w.,  ancestor. 
t5or'^abenb,  intended,  394, 1. 
SSormunb,  tw.,  -e^,  -er,  guardian. 


SB. 

W,  pronnnc.  of,  88  ;  description  of,  379  ; 
380,  2:  loss  of,  417,  2;  Eng.  corre- 
spondents of,  410,  3  ;  415,  2 ;  490.  6. 

wa^fen,  rcu^?,  gen)a(^?en,  grow, +wax,  VI., 

139;  417,  5,  a;  (bu,  er  tt5Ji(^[t). 
2!Bagen,m.,  + wagon,  +  wain,  494,1;  48,2. 
SBaggo'n,  m.,  pi.  in  -§,  car,  494, 1. 
wain  +  2Bagen,  494,1. 
wa^r,  true,  74. 
SBa^r^eit,  /.,  w.,  truth. 
2BaIb,  m.,  -eS,  -er,  forest,  +  wold. 
wdten,  n:le  (italtete). 
wanbeln,  walk,  change,  118,  3. 
rcanbern  +  wander,  118,3. 
icann+when;  for  relat.  pron.,  358  ;  conj., 

330, 1;  etym.,  551,2. 
toav,  pret.  of  fein,  q.  v.  •  also  wesan. 
ttjarb,  pret.  sing,  of  irerbcn,  111,  2  j  460. 
ttjarum  + why,  +  wherefore,  351,4;  551,2. 
tt)a§,  interrog.  pron.,  93  ;   444  ;  use  of, 

351;    +  6.,   351,  1-   preceded  by  ju, 

mit,  351,  3 ;    with  filr  and  ein,   144, 

353  ;  force  of  worum,  351,  4:   relat. 

pron.,  93  ;  356  ;  356,  2  ;  indef.  pron., 

96;  3041:;  260. 
itaS,  archaic  of  wesan,  466, 1. 
irafc^en,  rcuf^,  gercaf^en,  +  wash,  VI.,  139  ; 

413  ;  (bu  »a^d)eft  or  xoh\&)t). 
SBaffer,  n.,  -,  + water,  414,  1,  Ex. 
rcagen,  see  tuiegen. 

ttj&|renb,  during,  303,  11;  corij.,  330, 1. 
-tt»art§,  +  -ward,  553,  2. 
"weak,"  438,  3. 
rceben,  iddS,  genjofecn,  +  weave,  VIII.,  133  ; 

(bu  metft) :  weak  =  to  move, 
ttjeber  —  noc^  +  neither  —  nor  ;  +  whether, 

444,  3 ;  in  compar.  clauses,  333,  Ex. 
-ttjegen,  on  account  of,  in  comp.  with  pron., 

87,  89  ;  prepos.,  303,  13. 
rmi}  t^un  +  D.,  to  pain,  see  t^mt. 
9Beib,  n.,  -e§,  -er,+ woman,  +  wife,  166. 
njeicft,  soft  ( +  weak). 
ted^en,  mi),  gereti^en,  to  yield,  I.,  133, 1 ; 

weak  =  to  soften. 
SBei^nac^ten,  Christmas,  439,  1. 
tonl,  because,  337;   +  while,  330,  1. 
-rceife,  -wise,  553,  3. 
mei^en,  tuieg,  gercieien,  show,  I.,  133,  2. 
wei^jagen,  prophecy,  547,  3  ;  (p.  p.  oeioeigs 

ttjetp,  see  njtffen. 

njcl^,  interrog.  pron.,  93,  2 ;  444,  2 ;  with 

cin,   144 ;    353  •    relat.   pron.,   93,  2 ; 

355,    356;    indef.    pron.,    96,    360; 

etym.y  415,  2, 
icem,  D.  of  luer,  q.  v. ;  93, 1. 
wenben,  wanbte,  geiranbt,   turn   (  +  wend), 

119, 1 ;   397  ;   453  ;  (bu  icenbeft,  pret. 

subj.  wenbete). 
ttjcnig,  little,  few ;  comparison  regular  or 

as  in  76, 1. 


wenn,   conj.,  +  when,  =  if  in    temporal 

cl.,    330,  1  ;    =   if  in    concessive  cl., 

339  ;  =  if  in  condit.  cl.,  340  ;  etym., 

551,  2. 
ttJer  +  who,  interrog.    pron.,   93  ;    351 ; 

410,  3;    444;    relat.    pron.,    93,    3; 

354;    356;    indef.   pron.,  96;    354; 

360;  339. 
rccrben,  warB,  geworBen,  recruit,  sue  for, 

in.,  135,  3 ;  (bu  xoixb^,  »irb,  wilrSe  or 

trirbe). 
itjerbcn,  warb  or  wurbe,  gercorben,  become 

(  +  worth),  III.,  135,  3;   infl.  of,  110; 

111,  2;   460,  1;  in  passive,  373  ;  in 

comp.  tenses,  383,  2-5  ;   +  ju,  303, 16; 

(bu  ictrft,  er  luirb,  werbe,  wtobe). 
wcrfen,  njorf,  gcworfen,  throw,  III.,  135,  3 ; 

(bu  roirtft,  airf,  wilrfe  or  airfe). 
SBerf,  71.,  -e§,  -e,+work,  60. 
tt>e§,  iceffen,  rce^,  93,  1 ;  356,  4. 
wefen,  wesan,  V.,  138,1 ;  411 ;  466. 
tt)e§^atb,  wherefore,  93, 1. 
rcejfent-,  in  comp.,  93, 1. 
2Sii&t,  m.,  -e,  + wight,  +  whit, 
wiber,  against,  304,  8 :  in  comp.  verbs, 

549,  7. 
tDibmen,  dedicate  (wibmetc),  118,  2. 
icte,  +how,  as,  444,  1  ;  in  tempor.  clauses, 

330,  1,  2 ;  in  compar.  cl.,  333  ;  after 

comparative,  333,  2. 
trtebcr,  a(?t?., again,  in  comp.  verbs,  549,8. 
loiegen,  itog,  geiBogen,+ weigh,  VIII.,  133; 

(also  reagen,  bu  rotegft). 
ttjtlb  +  wild. 

iciH,  see  reollcn  ;  367,  6. 
millen,  for  the  sake  of,  in  comp.  with  pron., 

87,  89  ;  prepos.,  303,  14. 
njtnben,  wanb,  geaunbcn, +  wind,  in.,  135, 

1 ;  (bu  irinbeft). 
wiffen,  JDU^te,  gciuu^t,  for  infl.  see  135, 1 ; 

413,  2;  471,  1  ;  473,  1 ;  compar.  with 

!cnnen,  Ifinnen,  367, 1. 
with+iciber,  306,8. 

ilBittum,  n.,  -e,  jointure,  allowance,  501. 
inD(i;)  + where,  supplants  cases  of  interrog., 

and  relat.  pron.,  351,  2  ;  358  ;  in  local 

clauses,   331 ;    in  tempor.  cl.,  330,  1  ; 

in  condit.  cl.,  340,  340,  4 ;   origin  of, 

551,2. 
icofern,  conj.,  in  so  far  as,  336 ;    340 ; 

340,  2. 
WD^I  +  well,  pronunc.  of,  381;  339;  489, 

1;  position  of,  354;  399,  2,  a. 
»oMge6oren,  (Your)  Honor,  lit.  +  well  bom. 
BJoUen,  tBDirte,   geicoUt,  +  will,  be  willing, 

for  infl.  see  135,  7,  and  108,  2 ;  473, 

2;  special  force  of,  367,  6;   379,  3; 

383,  5. 
ttjomoglic^,  if  possible,  340,  4. 
njorben,  past  part,  of  rcerben,  108,  5. 
iffiovt,  w.,  -e  and  -er, +word,  58. 
aSunber,  w.,  -,  + wonder,  see  ne^men. 
iDurbe,  pret.  of  reerben,  111,  2. 
9Burm,  m.,  -er,  and  -e,  +worm. 
»u|te,  see  rciffen. 
asarbc,  /.,  w.,  dignity,  +  worth. 


286      WORD-I^DEX   AlfD   GERMAN-EN^GipiSH   VOCABULARY. 


X. 


J,  pronunc.  of,  29;   389,2;  417, 5, a; 

Engl.  X  as  symbol,  395. 


9,  pronimc.  of,  31. 


8. 

I,  pronunc.  of,  30 ;  389, 3,  4 ;  Eng.  corre- 
Bpondents  of,  409, 1 ;  414, 1 ;  490,  2  ; 
635,  l,i2.  2. 

ja^m  +  tame,  74,  398. 

3a^n,  m.,  ^e,  + tooth,  409, 1 ;  417, 1. 

jart,  tender,  74. 

j&:^men  +  to  tame,  535. 1,  o. 

3a^re, /.,  w.,  +  teaT,  430, 1. 

je^n  +  ten,  77,539. 

3ei*en,  n.,  -,  + token. 

gci^nen,  draw,  delineate,  118, 1. 

jei^en,  jie^,  gejie^en,  accuse,  I.,  123,  2; 
395;  463. 

-jen,  verb-suf.,  539,  3. 

get-  +  dis-,  verb-pref.,  546. 

jerr»i^cn,  to  tear  to  pieces,  see  rct|en. 

^euge,  tn.,w.,  witness. 


jie^en,  jog,  gejogen,  draw,  11.,  134,2 ;  416; 

(bu  jeu(^ft,  jeud^  are  archaic). 
-jig  +  -ty  in  numerals,  539,  1. 
jtttern,  tremble,  etym.,  457,  3. 
ju  +  to,  303,  16;  before  inf,  391;  before 

adj.,  391,  4  ;    333,  3 ;   see  gegen  and 

5uber,  tub,  etym.^  398. 

3ucfer,  in.,no  pl.,  +  sugar. 

jufolge,  in  accordance  with,  303, 15. 

jum  <  ju  bent  +  to  the.  40. 

^unft,  /.,  -e,  guild,  398. 

5uitge,  /.,  w.,  + tongue,  414, 1,  Ex. 

jut  <  5u  ber  +  to  ihe,fem.,  40. 

juru'cfbringeti  + bring  back,  see  bringen. 

juiammen,  together. 

jicar,  to  be  sure,  339 ;  555,  3  ;  position 

of,  354. 
jn5een  +  twain,  +  two,  79;  589. 
jioei  +  two;    infl.  of,  78;  form  and  gend. 

of,  79  ;  539. 
3n)elf  + twelve,  77;  539;  489,1. 
jn)ie-+  two-,  530,1. 
jn)tcr  + twice,  531,  2. 
jiDingen,  jrcang,   gej»ungen,  to  force.  III., 

135,  1. 
jtptfii^en  +  between,  306,  10;  compar.  with 

unter,  306,8;  305,  1,2. 
JTOD  +  two, /(?m.,  79;  539. 
z,  Grimm's  sign  for  the  sound  between 

z  and  6,  414 ;  >  s,  490,  2. 


APPENDIX. 


I.    Fuller  Inflections  for  Part  I.,  Section  I. 

II.   Alphabetical  List  of  Strong  and  Irregular 
Verbs. 


C2C7) 


DECLENSION    OF    NOUNS. 


I.     strong    Declension. 

Characteristics  :  the  G.  sing,  ends  in  -e§  or  -§.  Upon  the 
four  ways  of  forming  the  plural  the  division  into  classes  is 
based. 

2.  I.  Class.  Characteristics:  no  suffix  in  the  pi.,  but  there 
may  be  umlaut  of  the  stem- vowel. 

a.   No  umlaut. 


Masc.  ber  §ebel,  the  lever 

Neut.  ba§  5 

iSSimber,  the  wonder 

Sing.  N. 

ber  §ebel 

Sing.  N. 

ba§  SSunber 

G. 

be§  §ebel§ 

G. 

beg  2Qunber§ 

D. 

bem  §ebel 

D. 

bem  3Sunber 

A. 

ben  §ebel 

A. 

ba§  SBunber 

Plu.   N. 

bie  §eBeI 

Flu.  N. 

bie  2Bunber 

G. 

ber  §ebel 

G. 

ber  2Bunber 

D. 

ben  §ebeln 

D. 

ben  SSunbern 

A. 

bie  §ebel 

A. 

bie  SSunber 

b.  With  umlaut. 

Masc. 

ber  ©arten,  t?ie  garden 

Masc. 

ber  33ruber,  the  brother 

Sing.  N. 

ber  ©arten 

Sing.  N. 

ber  S3ruber 

G. 

be§  ©arten^ 

G. 

be§  33ruber§ 

D. 

bem  ©arten 

D. 

bem  93ruber 

A. 

ben  ©arten 

A. 

ben  Sruber 

Plu.  N. 

bie  ©cirten 

Flu.  N. 

bie  33ruber 

G. 

ber  ©cirten 

G. 

ber  33ruber 

D. 

ben  ©drten 

D. 

ben  Sriibern 

A. 

bie  ©cirten 

A. 

bie  Sriiber 

(289) 

290 


APPENDIX   OF   FORMS. 


Fem.  bie  2^od^ter,  the  daughter 

JSing.  N.  bie  ^Tod^ter 

G.  ber  %oii)ttx 

D.  ber  %o(i)ttx 

A.  bie  ^od^ter 

Plu.  N.  bie  ^oc^ter 

G.  ber  ^oc^ter 

D.  ben  Xod^tern 

A.  bie  St^oc^ter 


Neut.  ba§  ^lofter,  the  cloister 

Sing.  N.  ba§  ^lofter 

G.  beg  ^lofter§ 

D.  bem  ^lofter 

A.  bag  ^lofter 

PZ?i.  N.  bie  ^lofter 

G.  ber  ^lofter 

D.  ben  ^loftern 

A.  bie  ^lofter 


3.     II.  Class.     Characteristics :  the  pkiral  ends  in  -e,  but 
there  is  no  umlaut  of  the  stem-vowel. 


Masc.  ber  $fab,  the  path 

Sing.  N.  ber  $fab 

G.  be§  ^fabeg 

D.  bem  $fabe 

A.  ben  ^fab 

Pm.  N.  bie^fabe 

G.  ber  $fabe 

D.  ben  ^faben 

A.  bie  ?^fabe 

Neut.  ta^  Xlfov,  the  gate 

Sing.  N.  bag  ^^or 

G.  beg  ^ijoreg 

D.  bem  S^^ore 

A.  bag  %^ox 

Plu.  N.  bie  Xf)ore 

G.  ber  3:^f^ore 

D.  ben  ^f^oren 

A.  bie  ^^ore 


Neut.  ha^  ^rcug,  the  cross 

Sing.  N.  bag  ^reuj 

G.  beg  ^reu^eg 

T>.  bem  ^reuje 

A.  bag  ^reu5 

Plu.  N.  bie  ^reuje 

G.  ber  ^reuje 

D.  ben  .^reujen 

A.  bie  ^reuje 

Fem.   bie  j^inftenti*?,  the  darkness 

Sing.  N.  bie  ginfternig 

G.  ber  ginfternig 

D.  ber  ginfternig 

A.  bie  ginfternig 

Plu.  N.  bie  ginfterniffe 

G.  ber  ginfterniffe 

D.  ben  ginfterniffen 

A.  bie  Jinftemiffe 


4.     III.  Class.    Characteristics:  the  plural  ends  in  -e  and 
the  stem-vowel  has  the  umlaut. 


DECLENSION   OF   NOUNS.  291 

Masc.  ber  @ol)n,  the  son  Fem.  bie  ^ouft,  the  fist 

Sing.  N.     ber  Bo^n  Sing.  N.     bie  g^auft 


G. 

beg  ©o^neg 

G. 

ber  gauft 

D. 

bem  ©ol^ne 

D. 

ber  gauft 

A. 

ben  So^n 

A. 

bie  gauft 

Flu.  N. 

bie  ©of^ne 

Plu.  N. 

bie  gdufte 

G. 

ber  ©o^ne 

G. 

ber  gdufte 

D. 

ben  ©o^nen 

D. 

ben  gduften 

A. 

bie  ©of)ne 

A. 

bie  gdufte 

Fem.  bie  @tabt,  the  city 

Fem.  bie  ^uiift,  the  art 

Sing.  N. 

bie  ©tabt 

Sing.  N. 

bie  ^unft 

G. 

ber  ©tabt 

G. 

ber  ^unft 

D. 

ber  ©tabt 

D. 

ber  5lunft 

A. 

bie  ©tabt 

A. 

bie  ^unft 

Plu.  N. 

bie  ©tabte 

Flu.  N. 

bie  ^iinfte 

G. 

ber  ©tabte 

G. 

ber  ^iinfte 

D. 

ben  ©tdbten 

D. 

ben  ^iinften 

A. 

bie  ©tabte 

A. 

bie  ^iinfte 

5.  IV.  Class.  Characteristics  :  the  plural  ends  in  -er  and  the 
stem-vowel  lias  the  umlaut.  But  nouns  ending  in  -turn  have  the 
umlaut  in  this  suffix,  because  they  were  originally  compound 
nouns  in  which  the  last  noun  only  is  inflected. 

Masc.  ber  5BaIb,  the  forest  Neut.  ta^  S3(att,  the  leaf 

Sing.  N.     ber  2BaIb  Sing.  N.     bag  33Iatt 


G. 

beg  SBalbeg 

G. 

beg  Slatteg 

D. 

bem  SSalbe 

D. 

bem  SSIatte 

A. 

ben  2SaIb 

A. 

bag  Slatt 

u.  N. 

bie  2Sdlber 

Flu.  N. 

bie  SIdtter 

G. 

ber  2Bdlber 

G. 

ber  33Idtter 

D. 

ben  SBdlbern 

D. 

ben  Sldttern 

A. 

bie  SSdIber 

A. 

bie  SBIdtter 

292 


APPENDIX   OF   FOKitlS. 


Neut.  \ia^  ^crjogt^um,  the  duchy 

Sing.  N. 

ba§  §er^ogtum 

G. 

be§  ^ergogtum^ 

D. 

bem  §er3ogtum(e) 

A. 

ba§  §erjogtum 

Plu.  N. 

bie  ^ergogtiimer 

G. 

ber  §ergogtiimer 

D. 

ben  §erjogtumern 

A. 

bie  ©er^ogtiimer 

6.     Weak  Declension. 

Characteristics :  Masc. 

nouns  have  -en  or  -n  in  every  case 

and  number  except  in  the  N.  sing.     Fern,   nouns  have  this 

ending  ir 

I  the  plural  only. 

Masc.  ber  ®raf,  the  count 

Masc.  ber  ?ott)c,  the  lion 

Sing.^. 

ber  ©raf 

Smg.  N.     ber  Sotoe 

G. 

be§  ©rafen 

G.    be§  2oh)en 

D. 

bem  ©rafen 

D.    bem  Sotoen 

A. 

ben  ©rafen 

A.    ben  2ott»en 

Plu,  N. 

bie  ©rafen 

Plu.  N.    bie  £oh)en 

G. 

ber  ©rafen 

G.    ber  Soiren 

D. 

ben  ©rafen 

D.     ben  Soitjen 

A. 

bie  ©rafen 

A.    bie  Soipen 

Masc.  ber  hornet',  the  comet 
Sing.  N.    ber  ^omet' 


G. 
D. 
A. 

Plu.  N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


be§  ^ome'ten 
bem  ^ome'ten 
ben  ^ome'ten 
bie  ^ome'ten 
ber  ^ome'ten 
ben  5lome'ten 
bie  ^ome'ten 


Fem.  bie  l^rgion',  the  legion 

Sing.  N.     bie  Segion' 

G. 

D. 

A. 
Plu.  N. 

G. 

D. 

A. 


ber  Region' 
ber  Segion' 
bie  2egion' 
bie  Segio'nen 
ber  Segio'nen 
ben  Segio'nen 
bie  2egio'neu 


DECLENSION   OF   NOUNS. 


293 


Fem.  bte  ^vaiif  the  woman 

Sing.  N.  bic  3^rau 

G.  ber  grau 

D.  ber  grau 

A.  bie  Jrau 

Plu.  N.  bie  grauen 

G.  ber  grauen 

D.  ben  grauen 

A.  bie  grauen 


Fem.  tie  ®abd,  the  fork 

Sing.  N.  bie  (Babel 

G.  ber  ©abel 

D.  ber  (^aUi 

A.  bie  ©abel 

Plu,  N.  bie  ©abeln 

G.  ber  ©abeln 

D.  ben  ©abeln 

A.  bie  ©abein 


7.     Mixed  Declension. 

Characteristics :    the  G.  sing,  ends  in  -e§  or  -§,  the  whole 
plural  entls  in  -en  or  -n. 


Masc.  ber  9JJaft,  the  mast  {of  a  ship) 

Sing.l^.  ber^aft 

G.  be§  ma\m 

D.  bem  ma\i^ 

A.  ben  Tla\t 

Plu.  N.  biegjlaften 

G.  ber  ma\kn 

D.  ben  ^aften 

A.  bie  ma\kn 

Masc.  ber  2)oFtor,  the  doctor 

Sing.'S.  ber  ©oftor 

G.  be§  ^oftorS 

T>.  bem  ©oftor 

A.  ben  ©oftor 

Plu.  N.  bie  ^ofto'ren 

G.  ber  ^ofto'ren 

D.  ben  ©ofto'ren 

A.  bie  ^ofto'ren 


Neut.  ta^  Sliige,  the  eye 

Sing.  N.  bag  Sluge 

G.  beg  2luge§ 

D.  bem  Sluge 

A.  bag  Sluge 

P^w.  N.  bie  '^UQtn 

G.  ber  ^uQtn 

D.  ben  2(ugen 

A.  bie  Slugen 

Masc.  ber  (Staat,  the  state 

Sing.  N.  ber  Btaat 

G.  beg  ©taateg 

D.  bem  ©taate 

A.  ben  Btaai 

Plu.  N.  bie  BtaaUn 

G.  ber  BtaaUn 

D.  ben  Staaten 

A.  bie  (BtaaUn 


294 


APPENDIX  OF  FOKMS. 


Neut.  ha^  (Stubtunt,  the  study       Neut.  ba§  2Jitnevar,  the  mineral. 


Sing.^.  ba§  ©tubium 

G.  beg  ©tubiumg 

D.  bem  ©tubium 

A.  bag  ©tubium 

Plu.  N.  bie  ©tubien 

G.  ber  ©tubien 

D.  ben  ©tubien 

A.  bie  ©tubten 


Si7ig.  N.  bag  ^Diineral' 

G.  beg  TlxmxaW 

D.  bem  ^Rinerar 

A.  bag  Tlmixat 

Plu.  N.  bie  ^inera'lien 

G.  ber  5Rineralien 

D.  ben  ?[Rinera'lien 

A.  bie  3Jlinera'Iien 


Irregular  Noun,  baS  ^erg,  the  heart 


Sing.'N.  bag  §erj 

G.  beg  §er§eng 

D.  bem  ^erjen 

A.  bag  §er5 


Plu.  N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


bie  ^ergen 
ber  ^er^en 
ben  ^erjen 
bie  ^ergen 


DECLENSION    OF   ADJECTIVES, 

8.     Strong  Declension,  without  any  limiting  word  like  the 
definite  article  or  the  demonstrative  pronoun. 


Sing.  N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


good  father 

guter  SSater 
guteg  SSaterg 
gutem  SSater 
guten  SSater 


Plu.  N.  gute  SSdter 

G.  guter  3Sater 

D.  guten  3Sdtem 

A.  gute  2Sdter 


good  mother 

gute  3Rutter 
guter  5Rutter 
guter  SRutter 
gute  2Rutter 

gute  ^Jiiitter 
guter  SRiitter 
guten  5J?uttern 
gute  3Jlutter 


good  child 

guteg  5linb 
guteg  ^inbeg 
gutem  ^inbe 
guteg  ^inb 

gute  5linber 
guter  ^inber 
guten  ^inbem 
gute  ^inber 


DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


295 


9.     Weak   Declension,  the    adjective    is    preceded    by  the 
definite  article  or  a  pronoun  declined  like  it. 


the  green  tree 
Sing.  N.     ber  griine  33aum  Plu- 

G.  be§  griinen  58aume§ 
D.  bem  griinen  33aume 
A.     ben  griinen  SBaum 


N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


Sing,  N.  bie  griine  2Biefe 

G.  ber  griinen  3Siefe 

D.  ber  griinen  2Btefe 

*  bie  griine  SBtefe 


the  green  meadow 
Sing.  N. 


A. 

Sing.  N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


G. 
D. 
A. 


the  green  field 
ba§  griine  gelb  Plu.  N. 

be§  griinen  gelbeS  G. 

bem  griinen  g'elbe  D. 

ba§  griine  gelb  A. 


bie  griinen  Sdume 
ber  griinen  33dume 
ben  griinen  33dumen 
bie  griinen  33dume 

bie  griinen  3Siefen 
ber  griinen  2Biefen 
ben  griinen  2Stefen 
bie  griinen  2Siefen 

bie  griinen  gelber 
ber  griinen  gelber 
ben  griinen  gelbern 
bie  griinen  gelber 


10.  Weak  Declension,  the  adjective  is  preceded  by  ein  a, 
fein  no,  or  by  one  of  the  Possessive  Pronouns,  mein,  bein,  fein, 
unfer,  euer,  tfjr,  my,  thy,  his,  our,  your,  their.  This  is  some- 
times called  the  *  mixed'  declension. 


my  fine  apple 

Sing.'N.     mein  fci^oner  2l:^fel        Plu.  N. 

G.     meineg  fd^onen  2(^fel§  G. 

D.    meinem  fd^onen  Sl^fel  D. 

A.     meinen  fd^onen  Sl^fel  A. 

my  fine  flower 

Sing.'N.     meine  fd^one  Slume      Plu.  N. 

G.     meiner  fd^onen  33Iume  G. 

D.     meiner  frf)onen  33lume  D. 

A.     meine  fd)one  Slume  A. 


meine  fd^onen  S^fel 
meiner  fd^onen  Sl^fel 
meinen  fd^onen  S^feln 
meine  fd^onen  S^fel 

meine  fd^onen  93Iumen 
meiner  fd^onen  33  lumen 
meinen  fd^onen  33Iumen 
meine  fd()onen  33lumen 


296 


APPENDIX   OF  FORMS. 


my  fine  hook 

Sing.'N.    tnein  fd^onel  Suc^         Flu.  N.  meine  fd^onen  ^iid^er 

G.    meineg  fc^onen  Suc^e§  G.  metner  frf)onen  33ucf)er 

D.    meinem  fd)onen  33uc^e  D.  meinen  fd^onen  33uci^ern 


A.     mein  fc^bne^  Sud^ 


II.     E 

Ixamples  of  adjectives  with  the 

As  to  the  dropping  of  -e  see  §  71. 

our  noble  lord 

Sing.l^. 

unfer  ebler  §err          Sing.  N. 

G. 

unfer^  eblett  §errn                G. 

D. 

unferm  eblen  §errn              D. 

A. 

unfem  eblen  §errn               A. 

Plu,  N. 

unfre  eblen  §err(e)n    Flu.  IS^. 

G. 

unfrer  eblen  $err(e)n           G. 

D. 

unfern  eblen  §err(e)n           D. 

A. 

unfere  eblen  §err(e)n           A. 

A.    meine  fd^onen  ^nd)tx 
suffixes  -el  and  -er. 

their  lean  ox 
xi)x  magrer  £)d^0 
tl)re§  magern  Dd^fen 
tl)rem  ma  gem  Dcljfen 
il)ren  magern  Deafen 

iljre  magern  Drfjfen 
i^rer  magern  Dd^fen 
i^ren  magern  Deafen 
i^re  magern  D^^m 


12.     Examples  of  the  inflection  of  compared  adjectives. 

no  dearer  friend 

Sing.l^.    !ein  leurerer  greunb      Flu.  N. 

G.    f etne^  teureren  greunbe§         G. 

D.    feinem  teureren  greunbe  D. 

A.    feinen  teureren  greunb  A. 

this  more  bitter  kernel 

Sing.'N.    biefer  bittrere  ^ern        Flu.  'N. 

G.    biefe§  bittreren  ^erneg  G. 

D.    biefem  bittreren  ^erne  D. 

A.    biefen  bittreren  ^em  A. 

that  most  serene  face 
Sing.  N.    jene^  l^eiterfte  ©efid^t 
G.    jeneS  l^eiterften  ©efid^te^ 
D.    jenem  Ijeiterften  ©efid^tc 
A.     jene^  ^eiterfte  ©efic^t 


feine  teureren  greunbe 
feiner  teureren  greunbe 
feinen  teureren  greunben 
feine  teureren  greunbe 

biefe  bittreren  ^erne 
biefer  bittreren  ^eme 
biefen  bittreren  ^ernen 
biefe  bittreren  ^erne 


DECLENSION   OF   ADJECTIVES. 


297 


13. 

Sing,  N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


Plu.  N.  jene  l^eiterften  ©efid^ter 

G.  jener  l^eiterften  (S5efi(i)ter 

D.  jenen  l^eiterften  ©efid^tem 

A.  jenc  l^eiterften  ©eftd^ter 

Examples  of  the  inflection  of  the  adjective  l^ot^,  high. 


Sing.  N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


a  high  tower 

etn  1^0^  er  ^urm 
eine§  l^of^en  5turmeS 
cinem  f)ol^en  St^urme 
einen  l^ol^en  ^urm 

the  highest  towers 

bte  l^od^ften  ^iirme 

ber  ^oc^ften  Xiirme 

ben  ^od^ften  ^iirmen 

bte  l^od^ften  %vixm^ 


no  higher  tower 

!etn  l^ofjerer  ^urm 
!eine§  l^o^eren  ^urme§ 
feinem  l^o^jeren  ^urme 
feinen  l^of>eren  %\xxm 


Plu,  N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


CONJUGATION    OF    THE    ^^ATEAK    VERB 

loBett,  to  praise. 
Principal  parts :  loben,  loBte,  gelobt. 


14. 

Indicative, 

gd^  lobe,  I  praise 
bu  lobft,  thou  praisest 
er  lobt,  he  praises 
tt)ir  loben,  we  praise 
i^r  lobt,  you  praise 
fie  loben,  they  praise 

gd^  lobte,  I  praised 

bu  lobteft,  thou  praisedst 

er  lobte,  he  praised 


Active  Voice. 

Subjunctive, 
Present. 

gd^  lobe,  I  may  praise 
bu  lobeft,  thou  mayest  praise 
er  lobe,  he  may  praise 
it)tr  loben,  we  may  praise 
il^r  lobet,  you  may  praise 
fie  loben,  they  may  praise 
Preterit. 

gc^  lobete,  I  might  praise 

bu  lobeteft,  thou  mightest  praise 

er  lobete,  he  might  praise 


298 


APPENDIX  OF  FORMS. 


tt)ir  lobten,  we  praised 
i^r  lohUt,  you  praised 
fie  lobten,  they  praised 

I  have  praised,  etc. 
'^d)  l)aU  gelobt 
tu  l^aft  gelobt 
er  ^t  gelobt 
toir  ][>aben  gelobt 
t^r  l^abt  gelobt 
fie  l^aben  gelobt 


ioir  lobeten,  we  might  praise 
il^r  lobetet,  you  might  praise 
fie  lobeten,  they  might  praise 

Perfect. 

I  may  have  praised,  etc. 
gd^  l)aU  gelobt 
bu  l^abeft  gelobt 
er  l^abe  gelobt 
h)tr  l^aben  gelobt 
i^r  ^abet  gelobt 
fte  i^aben  gelobt 


Pluperfect. 


I  had  praised,  etc. 

3ci^  ^alte  gelobt 
bu  l^atteft  gelobt 
er  l^atte  gelobt 
ioir  l^atten  gelobt 
il^r  ^attet  gelobt 
fte  \)atUn  gelobt 


I  might  have  praised, 
^iS)  l^atte  gelobt 
bu  l^atteft  gelobt 
er  l^dtte  gelobt 
toir  l^dtten  gelobt 
i^r  l[>dttet  gelobt 
fie  l^dtten  gelobt   • 


etc. 


First    Future. 


I  shall  praise,  etc. 
3(^  ioerbe  loben 
bu  toirft  loben 
er  toirb  loben 
toir  toerben  loben 
i^r  ioerbet  loben 
fie  toerben  loben 


I  shall  praise,  etc. 
gd^  ioerbe  loben 
bu  toertteft  loben 
er  toerbe  loben 
toir  hjerben  loben 
il^r  ioerbet  loben 
fie  ioerben  loben 


Second  Future. 
I  shall  have  praised,  etc.  I  shall  have  praised,  etc. 

3d^  irerbe  gelobt  l^aben  ^<i)  toerbe  gelobt  l^aben 

bu  toirft  gelobt  l^aben  bu  toerbeft  gelobt  Ifiaben 

er  toirb  gelobt  l^aben  er  toerbe  gelobt  l^aben 


CONJUGATION. 


299 


\t)\v  tcerben  getobt  l^aben 
i^r  tcerbet  gelobt  l^aben 
fie  trerben  gelobt  l^abcn 

First  Conditional. 
I  should  praise,  etc. 
5c^  iDiirbe  loben 
bu  iDurbeft  loben 
er  tDiirbe  loben 
it)ir  tt)urben  loben 
i^r  hJiirbet  loben 
fie  iDiirben  loben 

Imperative. 

2obe,  praise  (thou) 
lobe  er,  let  him  praise 
loben  \t)xx,  let  us  praise 
lobt,  praise  (you) 
loben  fie,  let  them  praise 
loben  ©ie,  praise  (you) 


h)ir  tt>erben  gelobt  l^aben 
i^r  itjerbet  gelobt  f^aben 
fie  it)erben  gelobt  l^aben 

Second  Conditional. 
I  should  have  praised,  etc. 
3^  ttjiirbe  gelobt  ijjaben 
bu  n:)urbeft  gelobt  Ifiaben 
er  iDiirbe  gelobt  l)abtn 
Wiv  U)urbcn  gelobt  l^aben 
il^r  iDiirbet  gelobt  l^aben 
fie  toiirben  gelobt  l^aben 

Infinitives. 
Present,    Soben,  to  praise 
Past,        gelobt  l^aben,   to  have 
praised 


Participles. 

Present,     lobenb,  praising. 
Past,  gelobt,  praised. 


Indicative, 

I  am  praised,  etc. 
3d^  n)erbe  gelobt 
bu  ti;)irft  gelobt 
er  toirb  gelobt 
w'xv  iperben  gelobt 
i^r  tcerbet  gelobt 
fie  iperben  gelobt 


15.    Passive  Voice. 

Subjunctive, 
Present. 

I  may  be  praised,  etc. 
3c^  tt>erbe  gelobt 
bu  toerbeft  gelobt 
er  toerbe  gelobt 
W'lv  tperben  gelobt 
il^r  toerbet  gelobt 
fie  loerben  gelobt 


300 


APPENDIX   OF  FORMS. 


Preterit. 


I  was  praised,  etc. 
3(^  irurbe  or  n?arb  gelobt 
bu  tt)urbcft  or  hjarbft  gelobt 
er  tDurbe  or  iparb  gelobt 
U)ir  tourben  gelobt 
\l)X  JDurbet  gelobt 
fie  tourben  gelobt 


I  might  be  praised,  etc. 
^6)  toiirbe  gelobt 
bu  toiirbeft  gelobt 
er  ioitrbe  gelobt 
toir  toiirben  gelobt 
iljr  iDiirbet  gelobt 
fte  toiirben  gelobt 


Perfect. 


I  have  been  praised,  etc. 

^6)  bin  gelobt  toorben 
bu  bi[t  gelobt  toorben 
er  ift  gelobt  irorben 
ioir  finb  gelobt  toorben 
i^r  feib  gelobt  ioorben 
fie  finb  gelobt  ioorben 


I  may  have  been  praised,  etc. 

Sd^  fet  gelobt  ioorben 
bu  feift  gelobt  toorben 
er  fei  gelobt  Ujorben 
toir  feien  gelobt  toorben 
x\)v  feib  gelobt  toorben 
fie  feien  gelobt  ioorben 


Pluperfect. 


I  had  been  praised,  etc. 
'^d)  Wax  gelobt  ioorben 
bu  toarft  gelobt  ioorben 
er  iDar  gelobt  toorben 
toir  toaren  gelobt  iporben 
\i)x  iraret  gelobt  U)orben 
fie  ioaren  gelobt  toorbeu 


I  might  have  been  praised,  etc. 

3ci^  iodre  gelobt  ioorben 
bu  it)dreft  gelobt  ioorben 
er  iodre  gelobt  ioorben 
tv'xx  iodren  gelobt  ioorben 
i^r  it)dret  gelobt  irorben 
fie  iodren  gelobt  ioorben. 


First  Future. 


I  shall  be  praised,  etc. 

3(^  ioerbe  gelobt  itjerben 
bu  ioirft  gelobt  ioerben 
er  ioirb  gelobt  ioerben 
ioir  ioerben  gelobt  ioerben 
i^r  ioerbet  gelobt  ioerben 
fte  iperben  gelobt  ioerben 


I  shall  be  praised,  etc. 

3c^  ioerbe  gelobt  irerben 
bu  ioerbeft  gelobt  ioerben 
er  ioerbe  gelobt  ioerben 
irir  ioerben  gelobt  ioerben 
\l)x  iTjerbet  gelobt  itjcrben 
fie  ioerben  gelobt  ioerben 


CONJUGATION.  301 

Second  Future. 
I  shall  have  been  praised,  etc.     I  shall  have  been  praised,  etc. 
3ci^  iverbe  gelobt  iDorben  fein        3c^  toerbe  geloBtiuorbcn  fcin 
bu  h)irft  gelobt  U)orben  fein  bu  trerbeft  gelobt  hjorben  fein 

er  it)irb  gelobt  U)orben  fein  er  n)erbe  gelobt  irorben  fein 

Wiv  n^erben  gelobt  iworben  fein       mv  irerben  gelobt  toorben  fcin 
ibjX  toerbet  gelobt  ioorben  fein        i^r  toerbet  gelobt  toorben  fein 
fie  toerben  gelobt  toovben  fein        fie  ioerben  gelobt  it?orben  fein 

First  Conditional.  Second  Conditional. 

I  should  be  praised,  etc.  I  should  have  been  praised,  etc. 

3c^  toiirbe  gelobt  hjerben  gc^  toiirbe  gelobt  toorben  fein 

bu  njiirbeft  gelobt  ioerben  bu  iolirbeft  gelobt  loorben  fein 

er  toiirbe  gelobt  ioerben  er  it)urbe  gelobt  ii^orben  fein 

ioir  ioiirben  gelobt  h^erben  ioir  ioiirben  gelobt  ioorben  fein 

i^r  ioiirbet  gelobt  ioerben  i^r  ioiirbet  gelobt  ioorben  fein 

fie  iDiirben  gelobt  ioerben  fie  ioiirben  gelobt  ioorben  fein 

Imperative. 
(Set  or  ioerbe  gelobt,  be  (thou)  praised 
er  fei  or  ioerbe  gelobt,  let  him  be  praised 
©eib  or  ioerbet  gelobt,  be  (j'ou)  praised 
fie  feien  or  ioerben  gelobt,  let  them  be  praised 
©eien  ©ie  or  ioerben  (5ie  gelobt,  be  (you)  praised 

Infinitive. 
Present,    gelobt  ioerben,  to  be  praised 
Past.         gelobt  ioorben  fein,  to  have  been  praised 

1 6.     Examples  showing  the  use  of  the  connecting  vowel  C 
both  in  weak  and  strong  verbs,  see  §  118. 

reben,  rebete,  gerebet,  to  speak 
Pres.  Ind.  Pret.  Ind. 

3c^  i^si'e  $5ci^  rebete 

bu  rebeft  't)Vi  rebeteft 

er  rebet  er  rebete 


302  APPENDIX   OF  FORMS. 

toir  reben  totr  rebeten 

il^r  rebct  il^r  rebetet 

pe  reben  fte  rebeten 

f^a^en,  ]\iaiit,  gef^a^t,  to  joke 

faffen,  fcifete,  G^ffllt,  to  seize 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Ind. 

3*  frafee  3^  faffe 

bu  f^a^eft  bu  f  affeft 

er  fpagt  er  fagt 

Wix  f^afeen  toir  faffen 

i^r  \pa^i  tl^r  fagt 

fte  f^agen  fie  faffen 

it)anbeln,  toanbelte,  getoanbelt,  to  walk 
red;nen^  rec^nete,  gerec^net,  to  reckon 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Ind. 

gd^  h)anble  3<^  xtd)m 

bu  tDanbelft  bu  red^neft 

er  tt)anbelt  cr  red^net 

toir  h)anbeln  toir  red^nen 

tl^r  iuanbelt  x^x  rec^net 

fie  iranbeln  fte  red^inen 

metben,  ntieb,  gentieben,  to  avoid 
reiten,  ritt,  geritten,  to  ride  (on  horseback) 
Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Ind. 

3d^  meibe  ^i!f)  reite 

bu  meibeft  bu  reiteft 

er  meibet  cr  rettet 

h)ir  meiben  toir  reiten 

i^r  meibet  il)x  reitet 

fie  meiben  fte  reiten 

17,  Examples  of  strong  verbs  that  have  the  interchange 
of  e  and  i  or  ie  in  the  2.  and  3.  p.  sing.  pres.  ind.,  and  in  the  2. 
p.  sing,  of  the  imperative. 


CONJUGATION. 


303 


fterben,  ftarb,  geftorben,  to  die 
treten,  trat,  getreten,  to  tread 
lefen,  la§,  gelefen,  to  read 


Pres.  Ind. 

Pres.  Ind. 

Pres.  Ind. 

3c^  fterbe 

gd^  trete 

3^  lefe 

bu  ftirbft 

bu  trittft 

bu  lieft 

er  ftirbt 

er  tritt 

er  lieft 

hjir  fterben 

it)ir  treten 

tt)ir  lefen 

x\)x  fterbt 

il^r  tretet 

i^r  lefet 

fie  fterben 

fie  treten 

fie  lefen 

Imper.,  ftirb 

Imper.,  tritt 

Imper.,  lie§ 

i8.     Example   of   a   separable  compound  verb    with   the 
auxiliary  verb  f  e  i  n  in  the  compound  tenses. 

L^gel^en,  ging  au^,  auSgegangen,  to  go  out. 


au 
Indicative. 

I  go  out,  etc. 
3c^  gel^e  au§ 
bu  ge^ft  au§ 
er  gel^t  au§ 
toir  geljen  au§ 
\i)v  gel^t  a\\^ 
fie  ge^cn  au^ 

I  went  out,  etc. 
3d^  ging  au§ 
bu  gingft  a\x^ 
er  ging  au^ 
h)ir  gingen  a\x^ 
i^r  gingt  au§ 
fie  gingen  au§ 


Present. 


Subjunctive. 


I  may  go  out,  etc. 

3c^  gel)e  au§ 
bu  ge^eft  au§ 
er  gel^e  au§ 
toir  gelfjen  au^ 
iljr  ge^et  au§ 
fie  ge^en  aug 


Preterit. 


I  might  go  out,  etc. 
^^  ginge  an^ 
bu  gingeft  aug 
er  ginge  au§ 
U)ir  gingen  au§ 
i§r  ginget  au§ 
fie  gingen  au§ 


304 


APPENDIX  OF  FORMS. 


Perfect. 
I  have  gone  out,  etc.  I  may  have  gone  out,  etc. 


^d)  bin  au§gegangen 
bu  bi[t  auSgegangen 
er  i[t  auggegangen 
tt)ir  ftnb  auggegangen 
tl^r  feib  auggegangen 
fie  finb  au^gegangen 


^d)  fei  au§gegangen 
bu  feift  auggegangen 
er  fei  auggegangen 
tt)ir  feten  auSgegangen 
i^r  feiet  auggegangen 
fte  feien  au^gegangen 


Pluperfect. 
I  had  gone  out,  etc.  I  might  have  gone  out,  etc. 


3d^  it)ar  auSgegangen 
bu  irarft  auSgegangen 
er  Wax  au§gegangen 
it)ir  it>aren  aulgegangen 
il^r  hjaret  au§gegangen 
fie  icaren  au^gegangen 

First 
I  shall  go  out,  etc. 
Sd^  ttjerbe  augge^en 
bu  irirft  au^gel^en 
er  tr>irb  auggel^eu 
njir  hjerben  au§ge()en 
i^r  hjerbet  au^gel^en 
fie  hjerben  au^gel^en 


3d^  tt>are  auggegangen 
bu  trareft  au^gegangen 
er  tr>dre  ausgegangen 
toir  n?dren  au^gegangen 
i^r  ipdret  au^gegangen 
fie  ivdren  au^gegangen 

Future. 

I  shall  go  out,  etc. 
3(^  ttjerbe  auSge^en 
bu  ir)erbeft  au^ge^en 
er  trerbe  auSgel^en 
U)ir  tDerben  auSgel^en 
i^r  ioerbet  au§gef)en 
fie  iperben  au^gel^en 


Second  Future. 


I  shall  have  gone  out,  etc. 
^d)  trerbe  auSgegangen  fein 
bu  ii^irft  auggegangen  fein 
er  n?irb  au^gegangen  fein 
hjirhjerben  au^gegangen  fein 
if^r  h)erbet  auegegangen  fein 
fie  iDerben  au^gegangen  fein 


I  shall  have  gone  out,  etc. 
^c^  iDcrbe  au^gegangen  fein 
bu  hjerbeft  au^gegangen  fein 
er  toerbe  au^gegangen  fein 
tt)ir  n?erben  ausgegangen  fein 
xi)x  toerbet  au^gegangen  fein 
[ie  tDerben  au^gegangen  fein 


CONJUGATION 


305 


First  Conditional. 
I  should  go  out,  etc. 
3(^  toiirbe  an^i^tn 
bu  tDiirbeft  auSgef^en 
er  triirbe  au^gel^en 
tt)ir  iriirben  au^gel^en 
il^r  toiirbet  au§gel^en 
fie  toitrben  au^ge^en 


Second  Conditional. 
I  should  have  gone  out,  etc. 
gd^  tDiirbe  aufgegangen  f ein 
bu  tDiirbeyt  auSgegangen  fein 
er  tt)lirbe  au^gegangen  fein 
h)tr  hjiirben  auSgegangen  fein 
xi)x  trurbet  au^gegangen  fein 
fie  hjiirben  au^gegangen  fein 


Fast. 


Imperative. 

©eE)e  au^,  go  (thou)  out 
gel^e  er  auf,  let  him  go  out 
gel^en  it)ir  au§,  let  us  go  out 
gel^et  au§,  go  (you)  out 
gel^en  fie  au§,  let  them  go  out 
gel^en  ©ie  au§,  go  (you)  out 

Participles. 

Present.     au§gel^enb,  going  out. 
Past.         auggegangen,  gone  out. 


Infinitives. 

Present.     SluSgel^en,  to  go 
out 
au^gegangen  fein, 
to   have   gone 
out 


II.  ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  STRONG  AND 
IRREGULAR  VERBS 


Remarks.  —  The  principal  parts  are  put  in  full-faced  type.  The 
second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  present  indicative  are  given 
when  the  stem-vowel  is  i,  te,  or  an  umlaut ;  also  when  the  connecting 
vowel  c  is  required,  though  not  absolutely,  in  verbs  whose  stem  ends 
in  b,  t,  %  [f,  j,  ft.  (See  §  118.)  The  second  person  singular  of  the  im- 
perative is  given  when  it  has  the  short  form  without  e,  stem-vowel  i 
or  it ;  also  when  the  e  is  optional.  A  dash  indicates  weali  or  regular 
forms.  Forms  in  parentheses  are  rare  and  archaic,  for  which  the 
weak  ones  are  in  use  now.  Of  the  modal  auxiliaries  and  toiffen  the 
whole  present  indicative  singular  and  the  first  person  plural  are  given . 
Compound  verbs  are  given  only  when  the  simple  verb  has  passed  from 
present  use,  e.  g.,  bcfet)(cn,  gebarcn.  English  verbs  in  small  caps  are 
cognates  of  the  German  verbs,  i.  e.,  they  have  the  same  origin  and 
meaning. 


Infinitiye. 

©Brfcn,!  BAKE 

Sefeljlen,  command 


2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind. 

Bacf)1l,  bixdt 

befiel^lft,  bcfte^lt 


©epct^fit,  apply  (rofl.)    befleifeeil,  beflcifet 
9e0innrn,  begin  


eeigen,  bite  Beifeeft,  beifet 

©rdtn,'  bark  biCft,  biCt 

Serfltn,  hide  birgft,  birgt 

Oerptett,^  burst  birjlcft,  birft 

9etiieoen,3  induce  

Stceeii/  bend  (bcugft,  beugt 

»  Frequently  weak,  except  in  the  past  part.      * 
except  iu  this  figurative  sense. 


2.  p.  8. 
imp. 


beftc^l 
bcflei§(e) 

bctB(e) 

bia 

birg 

birp 
beug) 


Pret. 
ind. 

liul 

befall 

htm 
BtQontt 

iar0 


Biir^ 
tiorfi 


Pret. 
subj. 

biile 

bcfa^Ic 
bcfo^lc 

bcPiffe 

beganne 
bfgonne 

biffc 

bMe 

barge 
biirgc 

barftc 
borftc 


Past  part. 

gebacfen 
befo^len 

Brffiffen 
Begonnen 

Oeftifleit 
Qcbonen 
Qtborgrn 

QcbarPen 


tetocd        berooge       betuoQcn 
(d0  bSge  gebogen 

Now  generally  weak.     »  Weak, 

SOS) 


STRONG   AND   IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


307 


Infinitive. 

2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind. 

2.  p.  B. 
imp. 

Fret, 
ind. 

Fret. 

subj. 

Pa«t  part. 

©ictttt,  ofEer 

(beutft/Bcut 

beat) 

dot 

bote 

geboten 

©ittlien,  BIND 

Birtbcft,  binbct 

bant 

banbc 

gebuttben 

©itteit,  beg 

bitteft,  bittct 

bat 

bate 

gebeten 

©lojen,  BLOW 

blafef!,  blaft 

6Iie3 

blicfc 

geblafen 

©leifien,  remain 

dlieb 

bliebe 

geblirben 

Sleii^ett,!  BLEACH 

Bltdl 

blic^e 

geblti^en 

©rttten,2  roast 

bratft,  brat 

btitt 

brictc 

Qebratrn 

©rer^en,  break 

bric^ft,  bric^t 

brtd^ 

firad^ 

brad£)c 

gebrodien 

©rennett,  bubn 

brannte 

brcnntc 

gebrannt 

©ringen,  bring 

firad^te 

brad^tc 

gebroi^t 

^tnUtt,  THINK 

tatfftt 

ba^te 

gebflii^t 

!Jinflcn,3  hire,  bargain 

(hflng 
Hung 

biinge) 

gebungen 

Xtt\<^tn,  THRESH 

brifd^eft,  brifd^t 

brifc^ 

tira(4 

brafd^c 
brojc^e 

ecbr0{d^en 

!^tiitBen,  urge 

brang 

brange 

gcbrungrtt 

^iinfeit,  think 

(baud^te 

bouc^tc 

gebaud^t) 

Jiirfen,  be  allowed 

barf,  barfft, 
barf,  biirfen 

(wanting)  liurfte 

bitrftc 

grburft 

@m))fel^len,  recommend 

I  cmpfie^Ift,  empfie^II 

t  cmpftel^l 

em))fa^I 

cmpfa^te 
empfoi^le 

em|ifo^Ien 

6ffen,  eat 

iffeft,  m 

n 

«6 

Q§e 

gegeflen 

gftt^en,  archaic  for  fangcn 

ijfa^ren,  go,  fare 

fafirft,  fa^rt 

fa^r(c) 

futjt 

fU^re 

fiefo^ten 

gfOneit,  FALL 

faCft,  m* 



pel 

fieic 

gefaaen 

gfttlteit,*  FOLD 

faltcft,  faltet 

gefaltett 

gftttiflftt,  catch 

fangft,  fangt 

(fteug 

ftngc 
fienge) 

gefttngcn 

^tifittn,  fight 

fic^teft.e  fleets 

fleets 

fo«t 

fSc^te 

gefod^ten 

gftnlien,  find 

ftnbeft,  finbet 

fanb 

fanbe 

gefunbcn 

gflec^trtt,  twine 

flic^ft,''flic^t5 

flid^ts 

flodit 

flod^te 

geffod^tett 

gUcgeit,  FLY 

(fleugft,  fleugt 

fleug) 

ffofl 

floge 

eeffogen 

3  lichen,  flee 

(flcud^ft,  fleud^t 

fleud)) 

floi 

flb^e 

gcffo^m 

1  "Weak  when  transitive ;  sometimes  even  when  intransitive.  *  Sometimes  weak, 
except  in  the  past  part,  s  Still  frequently  weak.  *  Now  entirely  weak,  except  in  the 
past  part,    b  xhe  weak  forms  also  occur. 


308 


STRONG  AND   IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


Infinitive. 

2.  and  3.  p.  8. 
pres.  ind. 

2.  p.  8. 
imp. 

Pret. 
ind. 

Pret. 

subj. 

Past  part 

^litHttt,  flow 

(fleu^eft,  fleufet 

fleuB) 

m 

ffoffc 

ScPofien 

t^raQen,  ask 

fragft,  fragt 

frufi 

frugc 

Bffrttgti 

grf  If  en,  EAT  (of  animals)  f  riff  eft,  fri^t 

frife 

frttfe 

frafee 

flefreffen 

gfricrett,  freeze 

frar 

frorc 

Bcfroren 

®a(^)ren,  ferment 

(gierft,  giert) 



mt^ 

go^rc 

gego^reu^ 

®thavtn,  BEAR 

(gcbierft,  gcbiert 

gcbier) 

eefittr 

gebarc 

Oeborett 

©efieii,  GIVE 

gicbft,  giebt 
gibft,  gtbt 

gtcb 
gib 

eab 

gcibe 

B^flf^n* 

©ebei^ctt,  thrive 

Ofblf^ 

gebiel^e 

gehie^cn 

®e^fn,  GO 

(fltCltfl 

gingc 
gienge) 

OeBongcn 

©eltitgen,  succeed 

Bflnno 

geldnge 

gelungrn 

®tlUn,  be  worth 

giltft,  gilt 

flilt 

fioU 

galtc 
golte 

BCfloIteit 

©enefen,  recover 

genefcft,  geneft 

QenaS 

genafe 

genefen 

Oeniefectt,  enjoy 

(geneufeeft,  geneu^t 

geneuB) 

senofe 

genoffe 

gcnoffcn 

©efii^e^rn,  happen 

gcfc^ie^ft,  gefc^ie^t 

(wanting)  gefd^a^ 

gef(f)af)e 

geft^c^eit 

©etDinnen,  win 

gehiann 

geinannc 
geiuonne 

geUionnen 

©iefeeit,  pour 

(geufeeft,  geufet 

geuB) 

BOg 

Soffc 

gegoffctt 

®Iei(i^ett,3  resemble 

Bliii^ 

glid^c 

BcgUf^eit 

@let^en,  glitter 

gleifeeft,  gleifet 

■ 

(m 

gliffe 

gcgliffcn) 

©leiten,*  glide 

gleiteft,  gleitet 

ftHtt 

glitte 

geglitten 

©Ijtntnen,  gleam 

Qlomm 

gibmme 

rglammen 

©rttfien,  dig 

grSbft,  grabt 

grub 

gviibe 

gegrttben 

©reifcM,  gbipe,  grasp 



eriff 

gt-iffe 

gegrtffeit 

^tt6en,  HAVE 

^ftft,  ^ot 



batte 

l)atte 

ge^abt 

^alten,  hold 

^altft,  pit 

^alt(e) 

llielt 

^ielte 

Qc^alten 

^ongett,  HANG 

l^angft,  ^angt^ 

bittfl 
»)te«0 

l^ingc 
l^ieiige 

gc^nngm 

§ouen,  HEW 

ilieb 

i^iebe 

gr^auen 

^ebeit,  raise 



6o6 
bu6 

Ijiibe 

grbob  n 

1  Always  weak,  and  the  other  forms  are  properly  weak.  2  Also  weak,  especially  in 
figurative  sense.  ^  Usually  weak  when  transitive,  make  like  ♦  Weak  forms  some 
times  occur.  "  i^angft,  l^angt  also  occur.  Often  confounded  with  the  weak  and  transi* 
tive  l^dngen. 


STRONG   AND   IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


309 


Infinitive. 

2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind. 

2.  p.  8. 
imp. 

Pret. 
ind. 

Pret. 
subj. 

Past  part. 

^eljjen,  call 

l^cifeeft,  ^eiBt 

^tefe 

^tefee 

Oe^eifeett 

^elfen,  help 

^ilfft,  ^ilft 

t)ilf 

m\ 

pife 

fle^olfen 

Sttfleit,!  hunt 

(iaaft;  ififlt) 

(i«B 

iiige) 

Beittflt 

^elfen,2  chide 

«ff 

liffe 

fleHffen 

^cnncu,  KNOW 

lanttte 

fcnnte 

gelannt 

^tcfcn,  see  &uvm 

^Ikfien,  CLEAVE,  split 

tm 

Hbbc 

Qtflofien 

ifUmmcn,3  climb 

Ilomm 

Ili5mme 

Qeflommen 

ftUttoen,  sound 

flatiQ 

Ilangc 
tlUnge 

QelluttQen 

^nctfen,*  pinch 

fniff 

Iniffe 

fielniffftt 

Sntiptn,^  pinch 

(fnijj^i 

Inippc 

QtMpptn) 

^onaiten,  come 

(lijmmft,  lommt) 

fotnm(e) 

lam 

lame 

Qefommen 

ftiinncu,  can 

fann,  fannft,  lann, 
tounen 

(wanting)  fonttte 

fbnnte 

gefonnt 

flrcif(i^cn,5  scream 

Ireifd^eft,  Ircifd^t 



fvm 

Irifd^e 

gelrifd^ett 

^vitt^tn,  creep 

(!reud^ft,  freudE)t 

Ireud)) 

fror^ 

txo<S)t 

gefro(i^en 

Rattn,  choose 



for 

lore 

geforcn 

8ttlicn,6  LOAD,  invite 

labft,  labt 



luH 

litbe 

gelatiett 

gaffcn,  LET 

laffeft,  im 

Ia6(e) 

m 

liefec 

Qclafien 

Siiufen,  run 

laufft,  lauft 

lief 

licfe 

gelaufen 

gettien,  suffer 

leibcft,  leibct 

litt 

litte 

gelitten 

Sei^cn,  lend 

m 

liel^e 

gelie^en 

8e|en,  read 

Itefeft,  Iteft 

Uc§ 

m 

Icifc 

(jelefen 

fiiegen,  lie 

In 

Ifigc 

%tlt%tn 

Sofd)ett/  go  out 

lifc^eft,  lijd^t 

lifc^ 

im 

lojd^e 

Qelofri^fn 

gUQcn,  tell  a  lie 

(leugft,  leugt 

leug) 

log 

loge 

Oeloflen 

9Rtt^len,8  grind 

(ma^lft,  ma^It) 

(mu^l 

tniiljle) 

gema^len 

SRelhen,  shun 

mcibeft,  ntcibet 



ntteb 

miebc 

Bemietiett 

1  The  strong  forms,  except  perhaps  jug,  are  colloquial.  2  Usually  weak.  »  "Weak 
forms  sometimes  occur.  *  Sometimes  weak.  5  Now  usually  weak.  ^  Also  weak.  Two 
verbs  are  hopelessly  confounded  in  this  one,  viz.,  laben,  load,  once  always  strong, 
and  laben,  invite,  once  always  weak,  t  When  transitive,  quench,  weak.  8  Usually 
weak,  except  in  the  past  part. 


310 


STRONG  AND   IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


Infinitive. 

2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind. 

2.  p.  8. 
imp. 

Pret. 
ind. 

Pret. 
subj. 

Past  part. 

WttlUn,^  milk 

(milfft,  millt 

milf) 

moll 

tnbHc 

gemolfrn 

SRelfrn,  measure 

miffeft,  mifet 

tni§ 

waft 

ntafee 

Oemeffcn 

Kifelinont,  fail 

ntiglattg 

nii^lctnge 

mi^lunQtn 

gRdflen,  MAY 

mag,  tnagft,  ntag, 
mogeu 

(wanting)  maHttt 

mod^te 

Qcmod^t 

Stttflett,  MUST 

'      mu%.  mu%t,  mu§, 
miiffen 

(wanting)  mn^te 

ntafetc 

flemu^t 

fltfitaen,  take 

nimmft,  nimmt 

nimm 

naltm 

nfi^mc 

genommrn 

9ttrmtn,  namb 



nonttte 

nenntc 

genannt 

^fcifen,  whistle 

Dfiff 

Pftffe 

Bfpftffen 

^{leQnt,*  cherish 



Pfloge 

Bejjflogen 

^reifnt,*  PRAISE 

prcifcft,  preifl 



pviti 

pricfe 

eejirifffn 

CueHen,*  gush 

quiUft,  quiQt 

quia 

auou 

quoUe 

Qrquoden 

Wod^en,^  avenge 

("* 

rod^e) 

Qtvodftn 

9tat{ii)en,  advise 

rat(^)ft,  rat(^) 

ritm 

riet(^)e 

Berat(J))en 

Wei  6  en,  rub 

titi 

riebc 

Qtrieben 

Relfeeit,  tear 

reifeeft,  reifet 

reife(e) 

"6 

rifle 

Bcriffen 

Kdten,  bidk 

reiteft,  reitet 

ritt 

rittc 

eerittnt 

Kenntn,  bun 



rannte 

renntc 

grrannt 

Kied^en,  smell 

(reu^ft,  reuc^t 

reu^) 

roi^ 

roc^e 

grroti^en 

Kingen,  wkikg,  wrestle       



rong 

range 

grrungen 

Winnen,  bun 



r«tnt 

(ramie) 
ronne 

gcronncn 

Kufcn,  call 

rtef 

riefc 

gerufcn 

^oIjen,«  SALT 

faljefl,  faljt 

gejoljfn 

®tttt;en,  drink 

f aufft,  fauft 

fouf(e) 

m 

ysffc 

geloffen 

Saugrn,  suck 

foB 

f»fle 

gffogen 

©i^offeit/  create 

f*«f 

f<^ttfe 

gefe^affett 

©d^ttflen,*  sound 

f4oa 

fc^oUe 

geid^oUen 

Qd)t\titn,  part 

fc^eibcft,  fd^eibet 

f^irti 

f^tebe 

grji^ir&en 

6(tieinrn,  appear 



fi^im 

fc^iene 

grji^tcnett 

1  Now  usually  weak.  ^  Also  entirely  weak.  '  Sometimes  weak.  *  When  transitive, 
$oak,  weak.  ^  Now  mostly  weak.  «  Only  the  past  part,  is  still  strong.  ^  In  other 
ienses  weak. 


STRONG   AND   IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


311 


lufinitive. 
QiiftUcn,  scold 

©Ji^etcn,!  SHEAR 

Sr^ieficn,  shove 
Sii^tefeeu,  SHOOT 
©djlnJ)en,  flay 
(Sd&ltt[en,  SLEEP 
SdllOflcn,  strike 
@(!^teii^e!t,  sneak 
Sd^leifcn,^  whet 
S^Jeifecn,  slit 
SilUefen,  slip 
<S(i)Uef;en,  shut 

Sd^littQCtt'  SLING 

St^met^cn,  smite 
©(i^meljen,^  melt 
©d^naubcn,*  snort 
Sf^neitien,  cut 
S(i&rttu5en,s  screw 
©li^rerfen,^  be  afraid 
Si^reifieit,  write 
^(i^retcn,  cry 
Sd^reitcn,  stride 
Sd^roteit,'  rough-grind 
Sd^tudren,  suppurate 
Sd^toeiQfn,^  be  silent 
©ti^UJeUen,3  swell 
Sd^toimmen,  swim 

Sd^toitUieit,  vanish 


2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  iiid. 

fc^tift,  mit 


fd^terft,  fd^iert 

(fc^eufeeft,  fci^eufet 
fd^inbeft,  fd^inbet 
fc^Iafft,  yc^laft 
fc^lagft,  fd^ragt 


fd^Iei^eft,  fd^lcifet 
(fc^leufft,  fc^Ieuft 

f^meifeeft,  fd^mcifet 
fd^miljeft,  fd)mtljt 

fd^neibeft,  fd^neibct 

fd^rtdtfl,  fd^ridEt 


2.  p.  8. 
imp. 

fc^ilt 


fester 


Fret, 
ind. 


f^eufe) 


fc^Iaf(e) 


fc^rcitcft,  fd^reitet       

fd^roteft,  fd^rotct 

O'd^roicrft,  fd^rotert     fd^roicr) 


fdiob 

\m 

fd^unb  1 
f«Hcf 

f*l«0 
f«Hrf) 

mm 
mm 

miattQ 

fc^meiB(c)  ft^mift 

fd^milj  fdjinolj 

fri^nob 

ft^nltt 

fd^roB 

f^ricf  ((^roif 

— -  ftl^riefi 

fdE»rei(e)  fd^rie 

mtiti 


fc^lcufe) 


fd;miUft,  fc^rotUt 


fd^toinbeft,  fd^roinbet 


fd^toor 

—  fd^toieg 
fd)n)iir        m)3}0ii 

—  fdj^biamm 

fd^biaub 


Pret. 

subj. 

fc^dltc 
fc^blte 

fd)ore 

fc^oiic 

fc^iinbe 

fd}Iiefe 

fd^iuge 

fd^Ud^e 

mm 
wm 
mm 

fc^lofje 

jd^ldnge 

fctimifje 

fdjiuolje 

fd^abbe 

fcf)nitte 

fc^rbbe 

fd^rdle 

fd)riebe 

fd)i:icc 

jd^ritte 

jd^iDorc 
fd^roiege 
fd^toblle 


Past  part. 
Oefd^olten 

geid^oren 
Oefdgobrn 
fielt^ofjen 
gcii:l^unbett 

geid^tii^ett 
gcftfiliffen 
oefcftlijfeti 
flcfr^Ioffeit 

6e[d^lungen 
Btfi^aitljen 

Oejc^noben 

geid^nttten 

Qejd^roben 

gcid^rodfen 

ge{(t)rteben 

geid^rieen 

gejd^riUett 

Qtmtattn 

Oefd^taioren 

gefd^tutegen 

gcfd^ttioaen 


fd)iDamme  Qefd^toommen 

fd^robmme 

f^ivanbe   gefd^tii unbelt 

fd^roiinbe 


1  Sometimes  weak.  '  Weak  in  other  senses,  raze,  drag.  *  Weak  when  transitive. 
*  Also  weak ;  {i^nteben  occurs  instead  of  fd^nauben.  «  Also  weak  ^  Only  the  past 
part,  still  strong. 


312 


STEONG   AND   IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


Infinitive. 
Sri^tttiirctt,  swear 

^tiitn,  SEB 

Setn,  be 
Scnben,  send 

8ieben,^  seethe 
SittQen,  SING 
Sinfcn,  SINK 
@tnnen,  think 

8i^cn,  SIT 
Sotten,  should 
@|ialtrn,2  split 
Qptitn,  SPEW 
@|iinnen,  spin 

^^lei^en,  split 
^pttt^tn,  speak 
@|irtrgcn,  sprout 
Springen,  spring 
(Sted^en,  prick 
©terftn,»  STICK 
iStfl^en,  STAND 

Stellen,  steal 

Strtgen,  ascend 
i^tertirn,  die 

^t'xthtn,  disperse 
©tinfen,  stink 


2.  and  3.  p.  s.  2.  p.  s.         Pret. 

pres.  ind.  imp.  ind. 

fd^tottug 


fd6toor 

ft^tour 

fte^ft,  nc^t  rie^(e)         fa^ 

bin,  bift,  ift  k.  fci  tear 

fenbeft,  fenbet  loitbte 

(entiete 

ftebeft,  ftebet  \ott 

fang 

ffln! 

fttnn 

ftftep,  fi§t  \af) 

fon,  foUft,  fott,  foUen  (wanting)  foflte 
fpalteft,  fpaltct         

f^jie 

\pann 


fplcifeeft,  fpleifet 
fprid^ft,  fprit^t 
(fprcuBeft,  fpreu§t 

ftic^ft,  fti^t 
(ftidft,  ftitft 

ftie^Ift,  ftic^It 

ftirbft,  ftirbt 


fpiic^ 
fpreufe) 

ftic^ 

fte^(c 
ftie^l 

ftivb 


\pvaili 

fprong 

fttti^ 

flaf 

ftanii 
ftunO 

mt 

ftieg 
Par6 

m 


Pret. 

subj. 

fd^toangc 
f^roiinge 

fcbrcore 
fc^iDiirc 

toare 
feubetc 

fottc 

fange 

fonfe 

fdnnc 
fonne 

fa^c 

foOtc 


fpiec 

fpaniic 
fponne 

fpHffe 

fprdd^e 

fprofjc 

fprdngc 

ftdd^e 

ftafc 

ftfinbc 
ftiinbe 

fta^Ic 
floljlc 

ftiege 

ftarbc 
ftiirbc 

jlobc 

ftanic 
tlUnte 


Past  part. 
ge}(fttnuuge 

grjd^ltiorcn 

gefe^eit 

grtuefen 

gefaniit 
gefeiUirt 

gcfotten 

Bcfungen 

gefunffit 

gefunnett 

gcfellrn 

gefoflt 

grfiiaUett 

gefjiteen 

geflionnrn 

gcftiliRftt 

gefprod^en 

gciproffeu 

gciprungen 

grftot^cn 

(gcftoiftn) 

grftantien 

gefto^lett 

geRiegcn 
grftorben 

geflolien 
gtftuitftn 


1  Also  weak.    '  Only  the  past  part,  still  strong,    s  Always  weak  when  transitive ; 
sometimes  even  when  intransitive. 


STRONG   AND   IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


313 


Infinitive. 

©tofeett,  push 
Stretrl^rit,  stboke 
Streiteii,  strive 

2^Utt,  DO 

2raQen,  carry 
Xreffen,  hit 
2rciJiett,  dkive 
2retett,  tkead 
2rtcfen,i  drip 
3:rinten,  drink 

^riigen,  deceive 
aSerJJerlJen,^  spoil 

S^erbrie^en,  vex 

83erQeficn,  forget 
JBerllcrcn,  lose 
2Ba(i&(eit,  grow 
9BttQen,s  weigh 

SBttf^Ctl,  WASH 

2BeIien,3  weave 
SBfltJ^cn,*  yield 
SSetfen,  show 
SBentieft,  turn 

SDerben,  sue 

SSertien,  become 

SBerfen,  throw 

SBicQen,"  weigh 


2.  p.  s. 
imp. 

ftoB(e) 


t^u(e) 
triff 

tritt 
treuf) 


trcug) 
cerbirb 


2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind. 

noBeft,  fto^t 

ftveiteft,  ftrcitct 

trfigP, tragi 
triffft,  trifft 

trittft,  tritt 
(treufft,  tveuft 

(treugft,  treugt 
cerbirbft,  oerbirbt 

(oerbreufeeft, 
oerbreufet, 

oergiffeft,  oergi^t 
toad^fefi,  roSd^ft 
roafd^eft,  loafd^t 


tocifeft,  toeift  

toenbeft,  rocnbet  

wirbft,  toirfit  roirb 

tuirft,  toirb  locrbc 

jwirfft,  roirft  rcirf 


Pret. 
ind. 

ftrid^ 
firttt 

tm 

trufl 
traf 
trir6 
tmt 

troff 
trant 

trog 
toertiarb 


tjcrbreufe)  bertirog 
ocrgife 


tjcrgtt^ 
toerlor 

tuog 

moB 
toidi 

bianbte 
bientiete 

ttiarb 

taarb 
tuurDe 

toarf 
taias 


Pret. 

subj. 

fttefee 

ftrid)e 

ftrltte 

t^ate 

trilge 

trafe 

triebc 

tratc 

trijffc 

tranic 
triinte 

troge 

oerbftrbc 
oerbiirbe 


Past  part. 

Beflofeen 

Qe|}rt(igen 

geftrttten 

get^an 

getraoen 

getroffen 

^ttritbtn 

Qetretett 

Qetrojfen 

getrunlett 

grtrogen 
tttrtotbtn 


oerbrofte    berbroffett 


oergdffe 

oerlove 

wiid^fc 

loBgc 

roiiyd^e 

roobe 

toiefe 
ioettbete 


roarbc 
toiirbe 


bergcfien 

berloren 

getaiad^fett 

oetooom 

Qebiafd^en 

geUioben 

Qetuid^en 

getoieien 

getaianbt 
getuenbet 

getaiot-ben 


tuUrbe        gebibrbrtt 


warfe         gebidrfen 
toiirfe 

TOogc  getnogen 


1  Sometimes  weak.  «  Weak  when  transitive.  »  Also  weak,  especially  in  the  sense 
of  move,  hover.  *  Weak  in  the  sense  of  so/ten.  6  ssagen  and  tniegen  are  really  identi- 
cal.   JBiegen,  rock,  is  always  weak. 


314 


STRONG   AND   IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


Infinitiye. 
aSittben,  WIND 

SBtflett,  know 

ffloHen,  WILL 

^ttlien,  accuse 
^ie^ttt,  draw 
^toingen,  foroe 


2.  and  3.  p.  s. 
pres.  ind. 


tceil,  roiffen 

roia,  totKfl, 
toiU,  tooaeii 


(jeu(5ft,  8cu^t 


2.  p.  8.        Pret. 
imp.  ind. 


toinbeft,  loinbet         


toiffe 


TOoQe 


Seud^) 


tnanl) 


tottgte 


Pret. 
subj. 


Past  part. 
Qctountien 

roilgte         getnu^t 


iBonbe 
roiinbe 


tooate         tooQte         grttioat 


Jlei 

jie^e 

(jfjifftttt 

}08 

jogc 

flfjooftt 

jhiattQ 

jroange 
jirounge 

gcjinungett 

■£iJ¥;'J:. it-  ■9:¥l!HaBl»MmmiiiSms3lSiSXS6M 


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OCT  1 6  19GI 


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